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COIION-SCHOOL GEAIIAE 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



SIMON KERL, A.M., 

AUTHOR OF " COMPREHENSIVE GRAMMAR," " FIRST LESSONS IN GRAMMAR," KBC. 



Sacred Interpreter of human thought, 

How few respect or use thee as they ought ■ " 

Cowpeb, on Language. 



1VTSON, BLAKEMAN, TAYLOR & 00, 

NEW YORK AND CHICAGO. 
1878. 



TO THE TEACHER./^' 7 



You can not teach any science successfully, unless you are perfectly 
familiar with your text -book. Even if you understand the general 
subject, it will be well for you to study every evening the lesson 
which you expect to hear the next day for you will thus be enabled 
to make the recitations much more instructive and interesting. The 
first 33 pages of this book are designed for the teacher as well as for 
the pupil ; and these pages may be compared to a garden that is 
filled with a comprehensive assortment of plants arranged in natural 
order, through which the pupils are led as observers before they are 
required to botanize. You may simply talk over these pages to your 
class, — explain, analyze, and parse, while you require them to pay 
the closest attention to what you say It will be also well to present 
with this part a series of blackboard exercises, according to the sug- 
gestions given at the end of the book 

The next 36 pages may be taught as you find them ; thougn it is 
not necessary to commit more to memory than will satisfy the ques- 
tions on page 57 The next 171 pages should not be learned com- 
pletely at first but only so much should be taken as will suffice for 
parsing and analysis This amount will comprise only the defini 
tions of the parts of speech, their classes, and their properties , the 
declension, the list of irregular verbs, and the conjugation ; the rules 
°f syntax, the formulas for parsing, and a mere outline of analysis. 
Now let the pupils daily analyze and parse the exercises from page 
241 to page 276, unfolding every thing carefully in the order in which 
the exercises are given . and at the same time let them review again 
and again pages 70-240, in connection with this daily drilling. The 
remainder of the book can be easily conquered after this middle part 
is mastered. 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1865, by 

Simon Kerl 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern District of New York. 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1870, by 

Simon Kerl. 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern District of New York. 



PREFACE. 



"Language," said Sheridan, "is the great instrument by which all tin 
faculties of the mind are brought forward, moulded, and polished." He 
who travels over our extensive country can easily observe that wherever 
the people have a limited and obscure knowledge of language, there alJ 
the other elements of civilization and refinement are in a correspondingly 
undeveloped state ; but that wherever a home is surrounded by the beau- 
ties of nature and art, there is also generally heard such language as 
reveals the presence of literature and the cultivation of thought and 
sensibility. 

Language is at once the most useful, powerful, delicate, and durable 
instrument wielded by man. It materializes thought, so as to make it 
tangible, permanent, and transmissible ; and it thus carries civilization into 
every nook and corner of the world. It receives the intellect, heart, and 
achievements of every generation ; and bears forward the responsible bur- 
den to be judged by every future generation. While the marble crumbles, 
and the canvas fades, an embodiment of great thoughts in glorious language 
lives through all time ; renewing its youth, like the phcenix, with every edi- 
tion from the printing-press, and, like the sun, spreading its light and be- 
neficence round the whole globe. 

But how many literary productions are more or less disfigured with 
inaccuracies of grammar; and what an injurious influence is often exerted 
on the language of the people, by the hasty and crude literature of the 
daily press ! How often do men express their thoughts, even on important 
occasions, inaccurately, obscurely, ambiguously, or ridiculously ; and what 
a multitude of bickerings, lawsuits, and contentions arise from language 
misapplied or misunderstood ! It was the opinion of a late Attorney- 
General of the United States, that the people of this country pay at leas! 
twenty millions of dollars a year for the abuse of the English language in 
matters of contract and legislation alone. 

Till the excellent treatise of Murray made its appearance, the study of 
English grammar had hardly become a branch of common-school educa- 
tion ; but since that time the importance of the science has been so far 
established in the convictions of the public, that grammar is now every- 
where one of the leading studies in common schools. Corresponding text- 
books have constantly increased, until we have a superabundance ; yet 
there is doubtless always room for an improved system in every science. 



iV PREFACE. 

Most readers prefer to ascertain the plan and contents of a book by 
simply turning over its leaves ; but the following features of this treatise 
are some of those which the author has endeavored to make worthy of 
special notice : — 

1. The simple and scientific nature of the general plan, and the method- 
ical arrangement of matter throughout the book. 

2. The clearness, brevity, and uniformity of the definitions. 

3. The abundance and appropriateness of the illustrations and exercises. 

4. The careful development of every part in proportion to its impor- 
tance; so that the book is unusually symmetrical and comprehensive. 

5. The introduction of the historical element of our language; and the 
careful regard for those laws which underlie the fabric of language, and 
make it what it is. 

6. The treatment of infinitives and participles. 

7. The Rules of Syntax, in regard to both meaning and brevity. 

8. The collection of idioms and other difficult constructions. 

9. The system of Analysis, and the progressive development of sen- 
tences according to its principles. 

10. The classification of False Syntax ; and the lessening of so great a 
number of little rules, which are seldom learned and always soon forgotten. 

11. The critical remarks on syntax, punctuation, and capital letters. 

12. The superior mechanical execution of the work. 

The relative importance of the matter has been carefully distinguished 
by different sizes of type ; and what is designed only for reading or refer- 
ence, has been placed at the end of each Part, or so distinguished from the 
portions to be committed to memory as not to embarrass the learner or 
distract his attention. The pages to be studied make thus but a compara- 
tively small book. Yet for those pupils who may need a smaller or an 
introductory treatise, a book called " First Lessons in English Grammar/' 
and made on the same plan as this work, has been expressly prepared. 

If any teacher wishes his pupils to " analyze and parse " as soon as pos- 
sible, he can require them to commit the Rules of Syntax to memory, and 
he can then drill them, as they advance from the commencement of the 
book,' on the sentences which begin page 241. 

Brevity has been constantly studied ; and great care has been taken to 
make this grammar as simple, progressive, and interesting as such a book 
can be made without injuring its scientific value. 

In closing this Preface, the author desires to express his grateful ac- 
knowledgment for valuable suggestions received from the Masters of the 
Boston Public Schools ; of whom he would especially mention Daniel C. 
Biown, Joshua Bates, and James A. Page, as the gentlemen to whom 
he is mostly indebted. 



INDEX. 



Abbreviations, 337 

Accent, .... 39, 59, 325, 336 
Adjectives, 6, 108; Definitive, 108, 115 
Adjectives, Irregular, List of, . 176 

Adjuncts, 178, 309 

Adverbs, . 7, 172 ; List of, . 176 
Analysis of Sentences, . . . 227 
Analysis and Parsing, Exer- 
cises, 241-275 

Apposition, 100, 211 

Arrangement of -Words, . . 260, 308 
Articles, . . 4, 105, 279, 282, 300 
Articulation, . . . . . . . 334 

Brackets, 343 

Cases, 12, 95, 292 

Clauses, 18, 229, 239 

Colon, . . 337 

Comma, 339 

Comparison, Degrees of, 16, 109, 279 
Compound Words, . . 56, 260, 344 
Conjugation, ..«•-.... 160 
Conjunctions, 9,182; List of, . 185 

Connectives, 238 

Correlatives, ....... 186 

Dash 342 

Declension, 102 

Derivation of Words, ... 54, 66 

Discourse, 227 

Ellipsis, 214, 319 

Emphasis, 335 

Equivalent Expressions, . . . 257 

Etymology, 35, 66 

Exclamation-Point, 341 

False Syntax, 276, 311 

Figures of Orthography, . . . 318 

Figures of Syntax, 319 

Figures of Rhetoric, .... 321 

Formulas, 198, 262 

Genders, .... 10, 81, 216, 314 

Grammar, 34, 58 

Idioms, 209 

Independent Element, .... 238 

Infinitives, 151, 217, 307 

Interjections, .... 9, 187, 217 

In terrogationt Point, 341 

Inversion, ...... 2 17 . 320 

Italics, , . . 345 

Letters, . 35, 60; Capital, . 41, 61 

Modifiers, . . 233 

Moods, 14,131,219 

Nouns, . . . .... . 2, 71, 220 

• Numbers, . 12, 86, 142, 220, 295, 315 



PAGS 

Observations, . . 58, 209, 311, 346 

Orthography, 34 

Paragraph," 228 

Parsing, 198,261 

Participles, .... 154, 221, 307 
Parts of Speech, . . . . 1, 70, 209 

Pauses, 330, 335, 336 

Period, 337 

Persons, 11, 85, 142, 309 

Phrases, 18, 239 

Pleonasm, 95, 222, 320 

Poetry, 346 

Poetic Licenses, 332 

Predicates, 5, 232 

Prefixes, 54, 345 

Prepositions, 8, 178, 285; List of, 181 
Pronouns, .... 3,73,293,303 

Pronunciation, 35, 58 

Properties, Grammatical, ... 2 
Properties of Nouns and Pronouns, 81 
Properties of Verbs, .... 129 

Prosody, 35, 318 

Punctuation^ 336 

Quantity, . 3i7 

Questions, . . 57, 116, 188, 275, 350 

Quotation-Marks, 336 

Roots of Words, 54, 66 

Rules, 50, 190, 222, 292 

Scanning, ' 332 

Semicolon, 338 

Sentences, 18, 229; Elements of, 231 
Sentences, Classes of, ... . 240 
Sentences, how contracted or 

abridged, 256 

Spelling, . 50, 65 ; Rules of, . 50 

Subjects, 4, 232 

Suffixes, 54 

Syllables, 48, 65 

Syntax, 35, 276 ; Rules of, 190,292 

Tenses, 15, 136, 306 

Tenses, Forms of, 140 

Tones, . . ► 335 

Utterance, 334 

Verbs, . 4, 119; Classes of, . 120 
Verbs, Auxiliary, . . . 128, 148 
Verbs, Impersonal, ... 148, 217 
Verbs, Irregular, List of, . . . 121 
Verbs, Number of, . . . 142,295 
Verbs, Person of, ... 142, 295 

Versification, 325 

Voices, 13, 129, 316 

Words, 1, 53, 66 



For nice points, see Observations, pp. 58, 209, 311, 346. 



SYNOPSIS. 



Part I.— An Outline for Beginners. 

This Part shows the connection between thought and language, and how 
the latter is developed from a few great or fundamental ideas. It contains a 
familiar explanation of the chief ideas in grammar, which is followed by a 
series of exercises that show the general construction of sentences. 

For a mode of using these exercises, the teacher may consult Kerl's " First Lessons." 

Part II, — Words Uncombined. 

This Part begins witli a presentation of the subject and its divisions? it 
then treats of letters, elementary sounds, accent, pronunciation, syllables, 
spelling, and derivation, or it teaches what can be learned about words before 
they are combined in sentences. 

Part III. — Words Grammatically Combined. 

This Part shows what we must learn about words in order to know how 
they should be put together to make sentences. It treats of the parts of speech 
and their properties, the rules of syntax, and parsing ; or it shows into what 
classes we must divide words, and what jointings we must make, or by what 
ideas we must be governed, in order to put words rightly together in sentences. 

Part IV. — Words Logically Combined. 

This Part supposes that the jointings and small combinations of words are 
already made ; and that we are now ready to put the larger parts together so 
as to get sentences for all kinds of thoughts. It therefore treats of phrasea 
and clauses, as well as of words; of subjects, predicates, modifiers, connec- 
tives, simple sentences, complex sentences, and compound sentences. 

Part V. — Words Improperly Combined. 

This Part treats of the errors which can arise under both the preceding 
Parts. It implies that there may be some excess, deficiency, wrong choos- 
ing, or improper arrangement, in regard to the words which are to show 
precisely what we mean. 

Part VI. — Ornament and Finish. 

This Part supposes that we have already learned to express thoughts 
intelligibly and correctly, but that we now seek to express them in the most 
interesting and impressive manner; or it shows by what means thoughts are 
imparted to the best advantage. Hence it treats of figures, versification, 

utterance, and punctuation. 

— #— 

Remarks. — | denotes separation. = is placed between equivalent expressions. 

A number placed over a word shows which Rule of Syntax should be applied to it. 

"W means wrong : sentences beginning with this letter are to be corrected. 

What is to be committed to memory by the pupil, is printed in large type, or is distin- 
guished by being numbered with heavy black figures. . ( 

The few technical or difficult words which we have been obliged to use, the teacher 
should explain *, or he should give out a number of them to the pupils from time to time, 
and require them to learn the meanings in some large dictionary. 



(&u$M&h $>%mm%% 



• » »£S 0IH 



PART I. 



ajnt otTTi^rsnE for begiis^ers. 

■" I am convinced that the method of teaching 
which approaches most nearly to the method of 
investigation, is incomparably the "best; since, not 
content v^ith serving rip a few "barren and. lifeless 
truths, it leads to the stalk: on which they grow." 

Burke. 



THOUGHT AND ITS EXPRESSION. 

!• We think, or have thoughts. 

2a We express our thoughts by means of words. 

3t Words are either spoken or written. 

4* The expressing of our thoughts by means of words, 
is called language, or speech. 

5i Language is made to suit the world, and consists 
of many thousands of words ; but, like trees or persons, 
they can all be divided into a small number of classes. 

6. To express our thoughts, we use nine classes of 
words, which are therefore called the Parts of Speech. 

7. The Parts of Speech are Nouns, Pronouns, Ar- 
ticles, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunc- 
tions, and Interjections. 

8. To these nine classes of words belong eight chief 

J A 



2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

properties ; Gender, Person, Number, Case, Voice, Mood, 
Tense, and Comparison. 

9. These classes of words, and their properties, are 
based mainly on the following ten things or ideas : Ob- 
jects, Actions, Qualities, Sex, Number, Relation,* Man- 
ner, Time, Place, and Degree. 

Let us now see by what natural process we shall get thoughts, 
and then words to express them. 

Parts of Speech. 

NOUNS. 

When we look around us, we naturally first notice objects. 
The words John, Mary, tree, house, street, man, horse, apple, 
jlower, rose, chair, desk, book, paper, pencil, are r all of them, 
words that denote objects, and such words are called nouns. 

10. A Noun is a name. 

Tell what trees grow in the woods. What flowers grow in 
gardens ? What animals are on farms ? What things can 
boys eat ? What things do children play with ? What objects 
did you see this morning, on your way to school ? Who are 
your classmates ? What would you call the words you have 
mentioned ? 

You can generally tell whether a word is a noun or not, by 
considering whether it denotes something that you can see, 
hear, taste, smell, or feel, or think of as being a person or 
thing. 

PRONOUNS. 

When objects are near to us, or already known by having 
been mentioned, we do not always use their names, but cer- 

* Considered here chiefly as applied to Case and Person. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 8 

tain little words in stead of the names. If I say, " William 
promised Mary that William would lend Mary William's 
grammar, that Mary might study the grammar," you can easily 
see that the sentence is clumsy and disagreeable, because I 
have repeated the words William, Mary, and grammar. But if I 
say, " William promised Mary that he would lend her his gram- 
mar, that she might study it" you notice that the sentence is 
much more simple and agreeable, because I have used the little 
words he, she, and it, for the nouns William, Mary, and gram- 
mar, in stead of repeating these nouns. Pronoun means for a 
noun ; and pronouns are so called because they are used for 
nouns, or in stead of nouns. 

11. A Pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 

The most common pronouns are I, my, myself, mine, me, we, 
our, ourselves, ours, us, you, your, yourself, yours, ye, thou, thy, 
thyself, thine, thee, he, his, him, himself, she, her, herself, hers, it, 
itself, its, they, theirs, them, themselves, who, whose, whom, which, 
and that The easiest way in which you can generally dis- 
tinguish a pronoun from a noun, is to consider whether the 
word denotes an object, without being itself the name of the 
object. " / saw you" Here / denotes me, without being my 
name ; and you denotes the person spoken to, without being 
his name. 

Put suitable pronouns for the words in Italic letters : — 

John has learned John's lesson. Mary has torn Mary's 
book. The apple lay under the apple's tree. The apples lay 
under the apples' tree. Thomas has come home, and Thomas 
is well. Lucy is pretty, and Lucy knows it. The gun was 
brought, but the gun was out of order. Laura was disobedient, 
and therefore Laura's teacher punished Laura. Julia will buy 
you a basket, if Julia can buy the basket cheap. Joseph and 
Mary went to meet Joseph and Mary's father, but Joseph and 
Mary's father came another way. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



ARTICLES. 



Most objects exist in classes ; and when we use merely the 
ordinary name of something, we generally mean the class or 
object at large or indefinitely ; as, tree, apples, water. To show 
that we mean only one object of a kind, and no particular one, 
or that we mean some particular object or objects, we generally 
place the word a or an, or the, before the name ; as, a tree, 
the tree, the trees. If I say, " Give me a book, an apple," you 
understand that any book or apple will answer my purpose ; 
but if I say, " Give me the book, the books," you understand 
that I want some particular book or books. These words, a or 
an and the, which are very often used before nouns, and which 
generally show how we select the objects of which we are 
speaking, are called articles. 

12» An Article is the word the, a, or an, placed be- 
fore a noun to limit its meaning. 

Place A before each of the following nouns ; then the : — 

Man, book, pen, boy, parrot, pink, school-house, newspaper. 

Place an before each of the following nouns ; then the : — 

Ax, eagle, Indian, ox, owl, arbor, undertaker. 

VERBS. 

We can not think of an object, without thinking something 
of it. Therefore every thought or saying implies at least two 
things ; something of which we think or speak, and something 
that we think or say of. it : the former is called the subject, 
and the latter the predicate. " Rivers flow " ; here rivers is 
the subject, and flow is the predicate. " Deep rivers flow 
smoothly " ; here deep rivers is the subject, and flow smoothly 
is the predicate. 

13. A Subject is a word or expression denoting that of 
which something is said. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 5 

14. A Predicate is a word or phrase denoting what 
is said of the subject. 

15# A Proposition is a subject combined with its 
predicate. 

"When we speak of any object, we generally tell either what 
it is, what it does, or what is done to it. 

1. Flowers are beautiful The ant is an insect. 

2. Birds sing. Boys play. Carpenters build houses. 

3. Fields are 'ploughed. The corn was ground. 

The words are, is, sing, play, build, etc., by means of which 
we say things of the subjects, are called verbs. 

16. A Verb is a word used to express the act or 
state of a subject. 

" The river washes away the soil " ; here washes is a verb, 
because it tells what the river does. " The river is deep " ; 
here is is a verb, because it tells something of the river, or 
helps to show in what state it is. Sometimes we say that the 
verb affirms or predicates something of its subject. This is 
nearly the same as to tell you that it says something of that 
about which we are talking. We are sometimes obliged to use 
hard words in books, for the sake of greater accuracy or exact- 
ness. By dressing soldiers in a different style from that in 
which citizens are dressed, we can easily distinguish them from 
citizens. So every science has generally, in its words, a dress 
of its own. 

Mention the subjects, the predicates, the verbs of the predicates, and why: - - 
Frogs leap. Fishes swim. The wind whistles. The thun- 
der rolls. The lightning flashed. Clouds were moving. He 
recited his lesson. The door creaked. The snake crept into 
the grass. Oat flew the partridges. Lilies and roses were 
blooming together. 

Put a suitable- subject to each of the following predicates : — 

Is happy ; knows nothing ; am sick ; art released ; grew 



6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

rapidly; was neglected; were neglected; went away; spoke 
sensibly ; replied ; stepped forth ; retreated ; should obey their 
parents ; was a great man. 

Say something of each of the following objects, by telling what they are : 

Street, grass, hay, ice, stars, mountains, room, table. 

Ex.— The street is dusty. 

Say something of each of the following objects, by telling what they do: — 

Horse, farmers, trees, servant, hogs, tailor, teacher, scholar. 

Say something of each of the following objects, by telling what is done to 
them : — 

Lesson, bonnet, bridge, yard, window, John, newspaper. 

ADJECTIVES. 

We notice every day that objects are not all alike, even 
when of the same general kind. Some roses, for instance, are 
red ; some are white ; and some are yellow. An apple may be 
large or small ; red, green, or yellow ; hard or mellow ; mealy or 
juicy. Sometimes we notice several things of interest in the 
same object. A river, for instance, may be deep, broad, clear, 
and swift The value of objects, or the regard we have for 
them, depends not a little on their qualities ; and hence it is 
necessary for us to have words that will show the qualities of 
objects, or describe the objects. These words are called adjec- 
tives. Sometimes we use words that do not express the qual- 
ities of objects, but that still serve to show what objects are 
meant. Such words are this, that, each, every, either, first, sec- 
ond, one, two, three, etc. These words are also called adjectives. 
The word adjective means throwing or joining to ; an adjective 
generally modifies the idea of an object, by joining to it that 
of some quality. 

17. An Adjective is a word used to qualify or limit 
the meaning of a noun or pronoun. 

" A good pupil will be industrious* 1 Good and industrious 



PARTS OF SPEECH. T 

are adjectives, because they describe the pupil ; that is, they 
describe the object meant by the word pupil. " This, tree bore 
Jive bushels of apples." This is an adjective, because it makes 
the indefinite word tree mean a particular one ; and Jive is an 
adjective, because it makes the indefinite word bushels mean a 
particular number. 

Tell which are the adjectives, and why : — 

Warm weather ; dark clouds ; shady lawns ; tall trees ; a 
white cloud ; yonder house ; a hollow tree ; a steep bluff. 

Put suitable adjectives to each of the following nouns ; and then tell what each 
of the objects is, by using the same adjective: — 

Man, boy, workman, star, rose, river, book, day, crow, swan, 
pink, winter, snow, wood, stones, lead. 

ADVERBS. 

Not only are objects different, but their actions are also dif- 
ferent, even when of the same general kind. People do not 
all walk alike, nor talk alike, nor write alike. Hence we often 
use such words as well, badly, Jast, slowly, gracefully, awkwardly, 
sweetly, harshly, hastily, etc., to describe the actions of persons, 
or to distinguish their actions from one another. These "words 
are called adverbs, because they are generally added to verbs. 
Sometimes we distinguish actions by telling simply where or 
when they are done ; as, " It rained everywhere " ; " It rained 
seldom" 

We not only use words to describe objects and their actions, 
but we often use w^ords to show in what degrees objects or 
actions have their qualities ; as, very good ; tolerably fast ; more 
rapidly ; most rapidly. And these words, which express de- 
gree, and are joined to adjectives and adverbs, are also called 
adverbs. 

18# An Adverb is a word used to modify the mean- 
ing of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. 



8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

"John studies diligently" ; here diligently is an adverb, be- 
cause it shows the manner of studying, or it shows the mode 
of doing that act which is meant by the word studies. " The 
apple is very good " ; here very is an adverb, because it shows 
in what degree the apple is good. " The cars ran uncommonly 
fast"; here uncommonly is an adverb, because it shows in what 
degree the cars ran fast. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

By looking around us, we can easily see that the great mass 
of objects composing this world, is held together in a thousand 
different ways. " Houses are on the ground ; cellars are under 
houses ; and trees grow around houses." " Boats run up and 
down rivers, and rivers flow between hills." " The morning 
star rises before the sun, and night comes after sunset." 

To describe objects and all their actions and states, we have 
not a sufficient number of words made especially for this pur- 
pose, or we should have to use these words disagreeably often. 
Hence we often describe objects, actions, or their qualities, by 
showing simply how they are related to other objects ; or we 
make our thoughts pictures of parts of the world, by showing 
in these pictures how the corresponding things are linked to- 
gether. Such linking words, that express relation, are the 
words on, under, around, up, down, before, and after, used 
above ; and such words are called prepositions, because they 
are generally placed before the nouns and pronouns with 
which they make descriptive phrases. Preposition comes from 
pre, before, and positio, ■ placing ; the word therefore means 
placing before. 

19^ A Preposition is a word used to show the relation 
between a following noun or pronoun and some other word. 

" The roses by my window are in full bloom." By is a prep- 
osition, because it shows the relation between roses and win- 1 
dow, or the phrase by my window shows what roses are meant ; 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 9 

and in is a preposition, because it shows the relation between 
are and bloom, or the phrase in bloom shows in what condition 
the roses are or exist. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

We frequently use certain words simply to connect words, 
phrases, clauses, or sentences, and to show the dependence of 
the parts thus connected. When you hear such words as and, 
but, because, you at once know that something more is to come, 
and that it bears a certain relation to what has been said. If 
I say, " John writes and ciphers " ; " John spilt his ink on the 
desk and on the floor " ; " John writes every day, and I gener- 
ally look at his writing " ; you see that the word and adds 
something more to what has been said, or joins two words, two 
phrases, or two propositions together ; and since conjunction 
means joining together, the word and, and similar words, 
have been called conjunctions. 

20. A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, 
phrases, clauses, or sentences. 

" He rides, if he is sick." " He rides, though he is sick." 
" He fides, because he is sick." Here if, though, and because 
are conjunctions, because each connects two clauses. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

When we see, hear, or in any other way notice things, our 
feelings are often suddenly excited, and we utter, almost uncon- 
sciously, certain little words that show these emotions. Words 
of this kind are such as 0, oh, ah, pish, tut, aha, luhew, etc., 
which you have doubtless often heard. They generally express 
surprise, wonder, joy, grief, anger, or contempt. Interjection 
means throwing betioeen ; and since these words are loosely 
thrown between other words in speaking, they have beep called 
interjections. 



10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

21 • An Interjection is a word that expresses an 
emotion, and is not connected in construction with any 
other word. 

" Day broke ; but then, oh ! what a spectacle was that battle- 
field ! " Oh is an interjection, because it expresses the sudden 
emotion of the speaker, and is not related to any of the other 
words of the sentence. 

Suggestion to the Teacher. — Take a walk with your class 
during some leisure interval, and teach them the parts of speech from 
the surrounding scenery. 



Properties of the Parts of Speech. 

GENDER. 

When I say John, I mean a male ; when I say Mary, I mean 
a female; when I say child, I can mean either a male or a 
female ; and when I say knife, I mean neither a male nor a 
female. Hence some nouns are the names of males ; some are 
the names of females ; some are the names of either males or 
females ; and some are the names of neither males nor females. 
From this distinction in the use of words, we get that property 
of nouns and pronouns which is called gender. 

22^ Gender is that property of nouns and pronouns 
which distinguishes objects in regard to sex. 

25. There are four genders ; the masculine, the femi- 
nine, the common, and the neuter. 

24# A noun or pronoun is of the masculine gender, 
when it denotes a male. Man. 

25 • A noun or pronoun is of the feminine gender, 
when it denotes a female. Woman. 

26. A noun or pronoun is of the common gender, 
when it denotes either a male or a female. Person. 



PROPERTIES OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 11 

27. A noun or pronoun is of the neuter gender, when 
it denotes neither a male nor a female. House. 

The nouns man, boy, and king are of the masculine gender, 
because they denote males ; the nouns tvoman, girl, and queen 
are of the feminine gender, because they denote females ; the 
nouns parent, cousin, and neighbor are of the common gender, 
because they can be applied to either males or females ; and 
the nouns house, tree, and chair are of the neuter gender, 
because they are the names of neither males nor females. 

PERSON. 

In speaking, we can refer either to ourselves, to the person 
spoken to, or to the person or thing spoken of; and there are 
no other ways of speaking. From this distinction in the use 
of words, we get that property of nouns, pronouns, and verbs, 
which is called person. 

28. Person is that property of words which shows 
whether the speaker is meant, the person spoken to, or 
the person or thing spoken of. 

29. There are three persons ; the firsts the second, 
and the third. 

30. A noun or pronoun is of the first person, when 
it denotes the speaker. I saw yoru 

31. A noun or pronoun is of the second person, when 
it denotes the person spoken to. You saw me. 

32. A noun or pronoun is of the third person, when 
it denotes the person or thing spoken of. He saw it. 

"I Paul have written it"; here /and Paul are of the first 
person, because they denote the person speaking. In the sen- 
tence, " Thomas, your | horse has run away," Thomas and your 
are of the second person, because they denote the person 
spoken to ; while the word horse is of the third person, because 
it denotes the object spoken of. 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



NUMBER. 

There are not only many kinds of objects in the world, but 
generally many objects of each kind. In speaking, we often 
wish to show that we mean one object of a kind, or more than 
one ; and we use words accordingly. From this distinction in 
the use of words, we get that property of words which is 
called number. 

33. Number is that property of words which shows 
whether one object is meant, or more than one. 

34. There are two numbers; the singular and the 
plural. 

35. A noun or pronoun is of the singular number ', 
when it denotes but one object. Book. 

36. A noun or pronoun is of the plural number, when 
it denotes more objects than one. Books. 

The nouns Albert, tree, and girl are of the singular number, 
because each denotes but one object ; the nouns boys, trees, and 
girls are of the plural number, because each denotes more 
objects than one. 

CASE. 

When we speak of an object, we either say that it is some- 
thing, that it does something, or that something is done to it ; 
as, " The dove is white " ; " The dove coos " ; " The dove was 
caught" This relation of an object to what is said of it, is 
called case. When something is done, the act often affects 
some object ; as, " The dove eats corn" This relation of the 
act to what is acted upon, is also called case. Almost every 
object in the world belongs to some other object, or is a part 
of some other ; as, " Mary's dove " ; " The dove's feathers." 

All these relations of objects produce, in the expression of 
our thoughts, those relations between words which are called 
cases. 



PROPERTIES OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 13 

37. Case is that property of nouns • and pronouns 
which shows how they are used in the construction of 
sentences. 

38. There are three cases ; the nominative, the pos- 
sessive, and the objective. 

39. A noun or pronoun is in the nominative case, 
when it is the subject of a predicate-verb. /run. 

40. A noun or pronoun is in the possessive case, when 
it denotes possession. My hat. 

41. A noun or pronoun is in the objective case, when 
it is the object of a transitive verb or a preposition. He 
sent me to him. 

" John shot some squirrels in my father's | fields Here the 
word John is said to be in the Nominative case, because it de- 
notes the doer of something, or the person of whom something 
is said; the words squirrels and field are said to be in the 
objective case, because squirrels shows what he shot, and field 
shows in what ; and the word fathers is in the possessive case, 
because it denotes the owner of something. 

The teacher should explain the subject of Case more fully. 

VOICE. 

When an act is done by one person or thing to another, we 
can state the fact in two ways, — either by telling what the 
doer does, or by telling what is done to the person or thing 
acted upon ; as, " Brutus killed Csesar " ; " Caesar ivas killed by 
Brutus." From this distinction in the use of words, we get 
that property of verbs which is called voice. 

42. Voice is that property of verbs which shows 
whether the subject does, or receives, the act. 

43. There are tw r o voices; the active and the pas- 
sive. 

44. A verb is in the active voice, when it represents 
its subject as acting. I struck. 



14 . ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

45 # A verb is in the passive voice, when it represents 
its subject as acted upon. I was struck. 

If I say, " The servant scoured the floor," scoured is said to 
be in the active voice, because it represents the subject, servant* 
as acting upon the floor ; but if I say, " The floor was scoured 
by the servant," was scoured is said to be in the passive voice, 
because it represents the subject, floor, as acted upon. 

MOOD. 

Many actions really take place ; but many actions are only 
in the mind, or people are in certain relations to them. If I 
say, " I write" I express something as a matter of fact ; " I may 
or can write" I express not what is matter of fact, yet may 
become such, or I simply declare my relation to the act ; " If I 
were writing" I express a mere supposition ; " Write" I request 
it to be done ; " To write" " Writing" I simply speak of the 
act. These different modes of expressing the verb, gram- 
marians call moods ; or, from this distinction in the use of 
verbs, we get that property of verbs which is called mood. 

46. IVEood is the manner in which the act or state is ex- 
pressed with reference to its subject. 

47. There are four moods ; the indicative, the sub- 
junctive, the potential, and the imperative. 

48. A verb in the indicative mood- expresses an actual 
occurrence or fact. I go. 

49. A verb in the subjunctive mood expresses a future 
contingency, or a mere wish, supposition, or conclusion. 
If I go. If I were. 

50. A verb in the potential mood expresses power, 
possibility, liberty, inclination, duty, or necessity. I 
may, can, or must go. 

51. A verb in the imperative mood expresses com- 
mand, entreaty, exhortation, or permission. Gro (thou). 



PROPERTIES OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 15 

52. There are two other forms of the verb, the infini- 
tive and the participle ; but it is hardly necessary to call 
them moods. See pp. 131, 217, 

" I study " ; here study is in the indicative mood, because it 
expresses something as really taking place. " If I study," 
" If I were studying " ; here study and were studying are in the 
subjunctive mood, because the former expresses only what may 
take place hereafter, and the latter a mere supposition. " I 
can study " ; here can study is in the potential mood, because it 
expresses only my ability in regard to studying. " Study " ; 
here study is in the imperative mood, because it is given as a 
command to the person spoken to. " To study" " Studying " ; 
here the actions are spoken of abstractly, that is, without refer- 
ring them to any particular person or thing. 

TENSE. 

We can not separate our actions from time. Besides, the 
time of an act, or whether the act is completed or not, is often 
a matter of great importance to us. Time may naturally be 
divided into three great divisions, — present, past, and future ; 
and in each of these periods we may speak of an act as simply 
taking place, or as completed. Thus : * I write" " I have 
written " ; " I wrote" " I had written " ; " I shall write" " I 
shall have written" These different ways of using verbs to 
distinguish time, are called tenses. 

53. Tense is that property of verbs which shows the 
distinctions of time. 

54. There are six tenses: the present, the present- 
perfect; the past, the past-perfect ; the future, and the 
future-perfect. 

55. A verb in the present tense expresses a present 
act or state. I see. 

56. A verb in the present-perfect tense represents 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

something as completed in present time ; or as past, 
but connected with present time. I have seen. 

57. A verb in the past tense expresses simply a past 
act or state. I saw. 

58. A verb in the past-perfect tense represents some- 
thing as completed in past time. I had seen. 

59. A verb in the future tense expresses simply a 
future act or state. I shall see. 

60. A verb in the future-perfect tense represents 
something as completed in future time. I shall, have 
seen. 

The following sentences illustrate the six tenses : " The tree 
blossoms" " The tree has blossomed " ; " The tree blossomed" 
u The tree had blossomed " ; " The tree will blossom" " The 
tree will have blossomed." 

COMPARISON. 

Objects not only have qualities, but they often differ in their 
qualities, especially in degree ; and not a little of our regard 
for objects depends on whether they have more or less of the 
qualities which we like or dislike. I may prefer, for instance, 
one apple to another because it is larger or better than the other. 
Actions also differ, and not unfrequently in degree. " John 
may study diligently, but Mary may study more diligently" 

When we thus compare qualities, actions, and their circum- 
stances, we usually make but three chief distinctions. We 
may speak of the quality itself, of a higher or a lower degree 
of it, or of the highest or the lowest degree ; as, wise, wiser, 
wisest ; wise, less ivise, least wise. From these distinctions in 
the use of qualifying words, we get that property of adjectives 
and adverbs which is called comparison. 

61. Comparison is that property of adjectives and 
adverbs which expresses quality in different degrees. 



GRAMMATICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SENTENCES. 17 

62. There are three degrees of comparison \ the posi- 
tive, the comparative, and the superlative. 

63. An adjective or an adverb is in the positive de- 
gree, when it expresses simply the quality. Wise. 

64. An adjective or an adverb is in the comparative 
degree, when it expresses the quality in a higher or a 
lower degree. Wiser, less ivise. 

65. An adjective or an adverb is in the superlative 
degree, when it expresses the quality in the highest or 
the lowest degree. Wisest, least ivise. 

" Jane is tall " ; " Alice is taller " ; " Louisa is the tallest." 
" Jane writes carefully " ; " Alice writes less carefully " ; " Lou- 
isa writes least carefully" 

Fundamental Ideas, and Grammatical 
Development of Sentences. 

OBJECTS. 

1. Horse, dog, man, boys, lady, monkey, parasol. 

The horse runs. The dog barks. The man works. Boys 
study and play. The lady lost her | parasol. The monkey had 
taken the lady's \ parasol. I bought a barrel of flour. Life 
has its | pleasures and its \ troubles. 

2. For me to go. To die for one's country. 

For me to go is impossible. (What is impossible?) He 
wishes to sell the firm. It is glorious to die for one's country. 

3. That he will ever return. That you are not very at- 
tentive. 

That he will ever return, is doubtful. (What is doubtful ?) 
He says that you are not very attentive to your business. Is it 
not a pity, that she knows so little ? 

From the examples under this head, we can infer that a 
fundamental idea may show itself in a word, a phrase, or a 

B 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

clause. And from some of the examples under the following 
heads, it will be evident that it sometimes shows itself in the 
changes which it. causes in the forms of words. 

66. A Phrase is two or more words rightly put 
together, without making a proposition. 

67. A Clause is a proposition that makes but a 
part of a sentence. 

68. A Sentence is a thought expressed by a propo- 
sition, or a union of propositions, followed by a full pause. 

ACTIONS. 

Roll, read, climb, fly, swim, dance, sing. 

The ball rolls. The boy reads. Squirrels climb trees. 
Pigeons fly rapidly. Ducks swim. The girls sing and dance. 
The girls sing, walk, and dance. The lightnings dart from 
cloud to cloud. The dew bends and refreshes the flowers. 

Changes in Form, — The bell tolls. The bell is tolling. The 
bell has tolled. The bell tolled. The bell had tolled. The 
bell will toll. The bell will have tolled. The bell may toll. 
The bell may have tolled. The bell should have tolled. Toll, 
sweet bell! 

I strike. I am striking. I am struck. I was struck. I was 
striking. I struck. I have been striking. I have been struck. 
I shall strike. I shall be struck. I shall have been striking. I 
could strike. I could have been struck. See Manner and 
Time, pp. 23-25. . 

QUALITIES, OR ATTRIBUTES. 

1. Words. — A green meadow. The meadow is green. A 
fragrant pink. The pink is fragrant. Warm weather. The 
weather is warm. Blue hills. The hills are blue. Long les- 
sons. The lessons were long. An idle boy. The boy is idle. 
A bleak and frosty morning. The morning is bleak and frosty. 



GRAMMATICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SENTENCES. 19 

She has black eyes, rosy cheeks, and pearly teeth. The windy 
summit, ivild and high, rises against the distant sky. Rosy 
child, with forehead fair, coral lip, and shining hair. 

Changes in Form. — A cold day ; a colder day ; the coldest day. 
The day was cold. The day was colder. The day was the 
coldest. Large fish live in deep water. Larger fish live in 
deeper water. The largest fish live in the deepest water. Thi3 
tree has many apples. That tree has more apples. Yonder 
tree has most apples. See Degree, p. 26. 

2. Phrases. — The flowers of spring and the stars of heaven. 
(What flowers ?) Beauty is like the flowers of spring, but 
virtue is like the stars of heaven. The song of the robin was 
clear and tender. A bough with red berries floated on the 
water. The time of danger is the time for courage. It is the 
knell of the departed year. She has a bouquet of rare and 
beautiful flowers. The shady lawn between the house and the 
river is the most delightful part of the farm, 

3. Clauses. — The lady who sings so well, is now in the 
house. (What lady ?) He who is fond of solitude, is gen- 
erally fond of studying. Those people who flatter you, are not 
your friends. The rain which we have had this week, has been 
very refreshing. We gathered every year large quantities of 
nuts, which grew in great abundance in the forest | that sur- 
rounded our little farm. 

SEX. 

He is a boy. She is a girl. It is a tree. I met him. You 
met her. We met them. He is my father. She is my mother. 
My uncle came on his pony. My aunt came in her carriage. 
His brother is a duke. His sister is a duchess. He married a 
Jewess, She married a Jew, He was administrator. She was 
administratrix. He is an actor. She is an actress. If Joseph 
was a hero, Josephine was a heroine, Eeaus wait upon belles. 
The prince and the princess are now king and queen. Miss 
2 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Julia Brooks is the niece, not the nephew, of Mr. Julius 
Brooks. Ganders are white, and geese are gray. Ganders 
and geese are often called geese; drakes and ducks, ducks; 
horses and mares, horses ; and heirs and heiresses, heirs. Two 
sons were all the male descendants, and three daughters all the 
female descendants, of the family. The landlady was very 
polite to the gentlemen and the ladies; but I assure you the 
^landlord, made them all pay for their titles the next morning. 

NUMBER. 

One is. Two or more are. One was. Two or more were. 
One has been. Two or more have been. One reads. Two 
or more read. The man works. The men work. My tooth 
is sound. My teeth are sound. That goose is wild. Those 
geese are wild. The boy has lost his knife. The boys have 
lost their knives. The girl has recited her lesson. The girls 
'have recited their lessons. Only one half was accepted, 
though both halves were offered. The fox is a cunning ani- 
mal. Foxes are cunning animals. The lady is modest. 
Ladies are modest. My foot is sore. My feet are sore. Our 
feet are sore. The mouse ran into its hole. The mice ran 
into their holes. The child sleeps.* The children sleep. He 
bought an ox. They bought a yoke of oxen. I am busy. 
We are busy. Thou art. Ye are. I know myself. We 
know ourselves. He knows himself. They know themselves. 
He, she, or it, is good. They are good. The deer is a pretty 
creature. Deer are pretty creatures. The sheep is timid. 
Sheep are timid. The swine is greedy. Swine are greedy. 
I bought one dozen. He bought five dozen. This species 
of flowers is beautiful. These species of flowers are beau- 
tiful. The committee was large. The committee were not 
unanimous. The whole flock of partridges was caught. A 
multitude of people were assembled. The news is good. By 
this means he lost all. By these means he lost all. His 



GRAMMATICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SENTENCES. 21 

lungs were diseased. Riches are seldom well spent. The 
embers were hot. The dregs were at the bottom. The tongs 
have been more useful than the snuffers. An ash is a tree ; 
but ashes are the remains of burned wood or coal. Geniuses 
are men of genius, but genii are spirits. Dice are used for 
gaming, and dies are used for stamping. A memorandum de- 
notes one thing, but memoranda denote more. A radius is a 
single line, but radii are more. Silk is a kind of stuff, but 
silks are different kinds of silk. Tea is a kind of drink, but 
teas are different kinds of tea. By spices we usually mean dif- 
ferent kinds of spice. The Misses Bates are sisters to Dr. Bates ; 
and the Messrs. Barnes are brothers to Miss Barnes. Ten 
spoonfuls made a cupful ; and twenty cupfuls made two pitchers 
nearly full. My brothers-in-law live at my father-in-law's res- 
idence. The court-martial appealed to all the preceding 
courts-martial's decisions. 

Every boy has brought his books. All the boys have 
brought their books. All sugar is sweet. All ripe oranges 
are yellow. Either place is suitable. Both places are suit- 
able. Neither place is suitable. Some children are indus- 
trious. Most children are lazy. Some one is talking. Some 
others are shutting their desks. Many were invited, but only 
a few came. Two make a pair ; twelve make a dozen ; and 
twenty make a score. Five pair were sold for fifty cents. 
Man's years are three score and ten. 

PERSON. 

This subject belongs more properly to the next head, Relation ; but it 
is probably best to consider it in connection with Number. 

I am. Thou art. He is. We are. You are. They are. 
I was. Thou wast. He was. We were. You were. They 
were. I have been. You have been. He has been. They 
have been. I write. He writes. / know my lessons. He 
knows Ms lesson. You know your lesson. We know our les- 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

sons. They know their lessons. / take care of myself. You 
take care of yourself. We take care of ourselves. You take 
care of yourselves. He takes care of himself They take 
care of themselves. This is mine ; that is yours ; and the other 
is his or hers. The responsibility must fall upon him, upon 
you, or upon me. TFe have deceived ourselves ; you have de- 
ceived yourselves ; and they have deceived themselves. 

RELATION. 

Things have many relations to one another, and there are 
as many corresponding relations in the use of words ; but we 
shall here notice only the chief of those relations which afford 
us the cases of nouns and pronouns. 

Nominative Case. — The tree fell. (What fell ?) The flower 
is unfolding. The partridges new away. The ship moves. 
The bell rings. The storm roars. She laughed. (Who 
laughed ?) He is reading. / shall return soon. The boys 
skate. The trees wave. They're crackles and flames. 

The ocean is blue. (What is blue ?) This map is beautiful. 
The well was deep. Her dress was white and neat. The lark 
is a singing-bird. A thief is also a liar. Our corn is gathered. 
The bread is baked. Brass is made of zinc and copper. 

Objective Case. — The fisherman catches fish. (Catches 
what?) The boy broke the looking-glass. My mother spins^Zax. 
The carpenter mended the door. The caterpillars devoured 
the buds. The weaver weaves yarn into cloth. The barber 
shaved me. I invited him. They hid themselves. The sun is 
warming the garden. Snow has' covered the hills. She sang 
us a song. 

I was going down the street. (Down what?) The Missis- 
sippi river rises in Minnesota. The book lay on the table. 
The child fell into the well. The bridge extends over the 
river. There is a plank-road from the church to the college. 
Several railroads run through Pennsylvania. The garden lies 
behind the house. The swallows flutter about the eaves. 



GRAMMATICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SENTENCES. 23 

Possessive Case. — Here is the boy's book. Here are the boys 9 
books. This is the man's hat. These are the men's hats. I 
have cleaned my desk. We have cleaned our desks. You 
have broken your slate. He has bruised his thumb. She has 
torn her book. They had lost their way. This is mine ; that 
is yours ; and the other is hers. Tours are better than ours. 
My brother's estate belongs to one person only. My brothers' 
estate belongs to two or more persons. My friend's request* 
comes from one person only. My friends' request comes from 
two or more persons. It is our duty, not theirs, to supply the 
people's wants. For goodness' sake, help me out of my 
trouble's. He resides near St. James's Place. 

MOOD OR MANNER. 

"We shall notice manner here, only so far as it relates to the different 
modes of expressing the verb in regard to its subject. 

Indicative Mood. — John is at home. The glass was 
broken. The servant has made a fire. I had bought a farm. 
You shall see him to-morrow. The miller will have ground 
the corn before we return. 

Subjunctive Mood. — If John were at home. If the 
glass be broken, you may throw it away. If the servant had 
made a fire, we should have been comfortable. If I bought 
the farm, I should have to sell it again. If you see him to- 
morrow, tell him to visit me. Had the miller ground the corn, 
we should have returned sooner. 

Potential Mood. — John may be at home. The glass 
may have been broken. The servant could have made a fire. 
I would buy the farm, if he would sell it. You must see him 
to-morrow. The miller should have ground the corn. 

Imperative Mood. — John, be at home. Peter, make a 
fire. Miller, grind the corn. Buy the farm. See him to- 
morrow, if you can. Behave yourself well. Be always kind 
and obliging. Do not grieve over unavoidable calamities* 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Infinitives and Participles, — A servant came to make 
a fire. I ought to have bought the farm. It seems to have 
rained last night. Two hundred cannons, flashing and thunder- 
ing continually, seemed to shake the very earth to its centre. 
The glass having been broken, we threw it away. 

Akin to the forms of the verb known as moods, are the forms 
of the verb called voices. ' 

John hit James. James was hit by John. He told the 
story. The story was told by him. The puppy tore the book. 
The book was torn by the puppy. The water turns the wheel. 
The wheel is turned by the water. The winds fan the flowers 
and ruffle the waters. The flowers are fanned and the waters 
are ruffled by the winds. 

Akin to the moods are also the interrogative and the 
negative form of the verb. 

He has read the book. He has not read the book. Has he 
read the book ? Has he not read the book ? You have been 
at home. You have not been at home. Have you been at 
home ? Have you not been at home ? Life is a burden. 
Life is not a burden. Is life a burden? Is not life a 
burden ? 

Akin to the moods are also the forms of the tenses. 

He teaches. He teacheth. He is teaching. He does teach. 
He doth teach. You know him. Thou knowest him. You 
are a sinful people. Ye are a sinful people. I write. I am 
writing. I do write. I wrote. I was writing. I did write. 
Visit me. Do visit me. Are you the traitor ? Art thou tha 
traitor ? 

TIME. 

A chief idea sometimes displays itself in the changes which 
it causes in a certain class of words. When this occurs, the 
idea becomes a grammatical property. Hence time affords us 
the tenses. 



GRAMMATICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SENTENCES. ZO 

Changes in Form. — Present Tense. — The rose blooms. 
The boy studies. The work is done. The leaves are falling. 
The cars do not move. The journey is expensive,. 

Present-perfect Tense. — The rose has bloomed. The 
boy has studied. The work has been done. The leaves have 
been falling. The journey has been expensive. 

Past Tense. — The rose bloomed. The boy studied. 
The work w T as done. The leaves were falling. The ears did 
not move. The journey was expensive. 

Past-perfect Tense. — The rose had bloomed. The boy 
had studied. The work had been done. The leaves had 
been falling. The journey had been expensive. 

Future Tense. — The rose will bloom. The boy will 
study. The work will be done. The leaves will be falling. 
The journey will be expensive. 

Future-perfect Tense. — The rose will have bloomed. 
The boy will have studied. The work will have been done. 
The train will have left. The journey will have been ex- 
pensive. 

Time may show itself more definitely in words, phrases, or 
clauses, that are used to express it. 

Words. — The paper comes weekly. Go instantly. It rains 
daily. Your class is now reciting. He will return late. I 
shall see you to-morrow. He was here yesterday. Jonquils 
bloom early. The oak lives long. We shall soon reach the 
shore. He visits us frequently. She is always cheerful. 

Phrases. — He remained till morning. A great storm arose 
after sunset. They were treated well that night, and the next 
day they departed. At the break of day, our horses were sad- 
dled. He rode a hundred miles in twenty-five hours. For 
many a returning autumn, this Indian visited the graves of his 
fathers. Within twenty years from the foundation of this vil- 
lage, deer had become scarce. 

Clauses. — He knocked at the door, before any one was awake. 
We shall have peace, after we have subdued the enemy. Great 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

was the alarm in the colony, while these children were lost. We 
traveled through dim paths, until the day drew to its close. She 
smiled when I told her how I had fallen into the water. 

Frequently, the changed form, the word, the phrase, and the 
clause, are all found in the same sentence; as, "He came\ 
early | in the morning, | while we were at breakfast." 

PLACE. 

Words. — The man is here. My horse stands yonder. I went 
home. I have seen him somewhere. I shall go abroad. The 
wall fell inwards. The birds flew away. The dog came up. 
Beautiful mansions gleamed far and near. 

Phrases. — Melons grow on vines. Tea is brought from 
China. The child slept in its mother's lap. I was at the 
same school. You reside in a pleasant part of the city. Let us 
take a ramble in the woods. The cascade tumbled from the 
rocks. The army -marched round the hill. We went through 
swamps, thickets, and endless mud. The Indians bore them far 
beyond the limits of the settlement. She sat below us, | at the 
same table. 

Clauses. — We caught the minnows where the water ripples 
over the rocks. He remains wherever he finds good company. 
Thou hearest the sound of the wind ; but thou canst not tell 
whence it cometh, and whither it goeth. 

Frequently, two or more chief ideas are combined in the 
same sentence. A recent French novel begins thus : " In the 
gloomy month of November, | when the English drown and hang 
themselves, a disconsolate lover walked forth \ into the fields, 
and seated himself under a juniper-tree? (Time and place.) 

DEGREE. 

The river is deep. The lake is deeper. The ocean is the 
deepest body of water in the world. This one is good; that 
one is better ; but the other is the best. Want is bad; but 



LOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SENTENCES. 27 

debt may be worse. A good name is better than riches. The 
worst gambler won the money. Who has more enemies and 
fewer friends, more trouble and less pleasure, than the miser ? 
The pink is more beautiful than the marigold, and one of the 
most fragrant of flowers. He sat next to me, though I was 
nearer to the speaker. I said an elder soldier, not a braver. The 
upper room is already occupied. The hindmost man was left 
in the utmost distress. Most men judge others more severely 
than themselves. The weather is somewhat colder. The 
weather is so cold that I need my overcoat. There was so 
much noise that we could hear but very little of what was said. 

Logical Development of Sentences. 

Persons are often perplexed in determining how they shall 
arrange the words by means of which they express their 
thoughts. We generally express our thoughts as we naturally 
think them. That of which we think or speak, is naturally 
first thought of; and therefore it is generally first put down. 
To this we add, either before or after, all the descriptive 
words, phrases, and clauses, that belong to it ; as, " The boy," 
"The little boy," "The little boy from the country," "The 
little boy from the country, who was here yesterday." Having 
thus got the subject, we next put down, in like manner, what 
is said of it ; as, " wept," " wept bitterly," " wept bitterly for 
a long time," " wept bitterly for a long time because he 
could not find his father." " The little boy from the country, 
who was here yesterday, wept bitterly for a long time because 
he could not find his father." From this sentence it is obvious 
that we naturally first put down the subject, then the predicate, 
adding to each, or rather, including with each, the various qual- 
ities or secondary ideas which enter into the thought. We do 
not, however, always arrange our words in this way ; but we 
sometimes put down first that which is first or most thought of, 
or makes the greatest impression upon us, even if it is not the 



• \ 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

object itself of which we are speaking. " The whole shelf of 
china fell down with such clattering and breaking as startled 
us all." In an occurrence of this kind, the fall is naturally the 
most striking part ; and therefore we would probably say, 
" Down fell the whole shelf of china, with such clattering and 
breaking as startled us all." 

We have many different thoughts. Our thoughts are made 
thus different because they are made up of many different 
ideas. Hence we get many different sentences; but nearly 
all of these sentences come more or less within the following 
description, or their parts answer to some of the following 
questions : — 

Which one ? ) ( Is what ? C When ? Where ? 

How many? V Subject. J Does what? ) How? Why? 

Of what kind?) Who? What? ( Has what done to it ? (As to what? 

Let us now develop sentences accordingly. 

SUBJECT. 

Simplest Form. Who ? What ? 

Columbus discovered America. Galile'o invented the tele- 
scope. Capt. John Smith colonized Virginia. The Romans 
destroyed Jerusalem. Washington is called the father of our 
country. The Mayor did not sign the bill. 

Iron is the most useful metal. Wealth is not the greatest 
blessing. A pen may be more dangerous than a sword. Pop- 
lars grow rapidly. Beauty is a perishing flower. 

Which one? 

This tree is an oak. That tree is an elm. Yonder farm 
belongs to me. The first man was shot. The last squadron 
had arrived. The youngest child is a daughter. The eldest 
son is in the army. Albert's books are new. My neighbor's 
horses ran away. Tour cap fits me. The river Hudson is 
in New York. The poet Cowper lived at Olney, in England. 
The steamship Arctic was wrecked at sea. David, the son 



LOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SENTENCES. 29 

of Jesse, became king of Israel. The tree dead at the top 
was first cut down. The apple highest on the tree is not 
always the best. The elm before the house must be a thousand 
years old. The paling around the garden cost a hundred dol- 
lars. The field below the hill is sometimes overflowed. The 
hills beyond the river are blue and beautiful. The house 
erected by the church is a parsonage. The trees planted along 
the river grow rapidly. The lines written by Coleridge are 
the most beautiful in the collection. The man who sits next to 
the speaker, is the president. The sum which was collected last 
Sunday, has already been expended. The evil about which 
you have said so much, has been often noticed. 

How many? 

Seven men were wounded. A thousand soldiers make a 
regiment. Twenty-five carriages followed the hearse. Wnly 
one person was seen in the canoe. 

Of what kind? 

A terrible thunder-storm passed over the city. A beautiful 
'lake lay in front of the house. Silvery clouds fringed the 
horizon. Iron railing is very durable. Small and beautiful 
flowers hung from the rocks. A Coifs revolver was in 
his belt. A hunter's rifle was the only gun we had. Isa- 
bella, a pious and noble queen, assisted Columbus. Collins, 
a poet of the most delicate sensibilities, died in the prime of life. 
A ship of the largest size was sunk by this rifled cannon. A 
man of good habits generally enjoys good health. The feath- 
ers of ducks and geese are used for beds. A person governed 
by his inclinations only, is apt to be fickle. A lady admired 
and praised for her beauty, is apt to become vain. Plants 
reared in cellars are seldom strong. Laws to prevent such 
outrages should be enacted. A dinner to suit the occasion 
was prepared. The man ivho does not keep his word, should 
not be trusted. The trees which are of the smallest size, gen- 
erally grow on high places. There arose, about this time, from 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the lower ranks of the people, a man named Cromwell, of incre- 
dible depth of understanding, strict integrity, and unwavering 
resolution, \ who with one hand held successfully the reins of 
civil authority, and with the other hurled victoriously the thunder- 
bolts of war. 

PEEDICATE. 

Is what? 

Life is short. Time is precious. War is ruinous. Cotton 
is dear. Farmers are generally industrious. Tomatoes are 
wholesome. Tomatoes are red or yellow. The pine-apple is 
sweet and juicy. The cat is a useful animal. John is an idle 
boy. The turkey is a native of America. The eagle is a bird 
of great power. The home of the brave is the home of the 
free. Gratitude is the memory of the heart. Hope is the 
. blossom of happiness. 

Does what? 

Lambs play. Eagles soar. Cars run. Bears growl and 
bite. My head aches. James is gathering hazel-nuts. Mary 
is paring apples. These islands produce spices. Caesar 
fought many battles. You have made an enemy of him. 
George gave me a piece of his apple. He told the story to 
his brother, and then they both laughed. 
Has what done to it? 

The door was shut. The stranger was bitten by the dog. 
The book was sent by mail. The field had been reaped. 
The meat will be cooked in a few hours. The treasures 
of the pirates were btJried on an island. The cargo was 
landed. The bells were rung. The old house was torn down 
by the workmen. Our apples must be gathered next week. 
The book is well printed and bound. Most people are 
easily deceived by fair appearances. 

When ? 

Words. — Come soon. I called afterwards. I have never 
seen him. He has always been in debt. Let us start early. 



LOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SENTENCES. 31 

Phrases. — He visits us every day. I go to school in the morn- 
ing. The robber was hanged before noon, \ about ten o'clock. 

Clauses, — Remain till I return. We often deceive ourselves, 
while we try to deceive others. When wolf eats wolf there is 
nothing else in the woods to eat. We used to go to bed at 
nine o'clock, when we lived in the country. My heart dilated 
with honest pride, as 1 recalled to mind the stern yet amiable 
characters of our Revolutionary fathers. 

Where? 

Words. — Stop here. I called there. Yonder comes your 
father. I found no amusement anywhere. He lives above. 

Phrases. — He visited us at home. We went into the country. 
There is a railroad across the Isthmus of Darien. Have you 
made a fire in my room ? On the banks of the Ganges we can 
see the ebony in bloom. 

Clauses. — The enemy put their cannons where no enemy 
could approach them. Where honesty takes root, the blessing of 
God makes it a tree. Wherever there is honey, there you will 
also find bees. As far as we went, there was nothing but des- 
olation. 

How? 

Words. — Move briskly. I knocked gently. The boatmen 
sang merrily. Did your goods sell well? The procession 
moved slowly and solemnly. 

Phrases. — It rained in torrents: She dresses after the Span- 
ish fashion. We keep without remorse that which we acquire 
without- crime. Half the people in the world live at the ex- 
pense of the other half Here comes the body of Cassar, 
mourned by Mark Antony. The Assyrian came down like the 
wolf on the fold. 

Clauses. — She behaved as every modest young lady should 
behave. The honest man speaks as he thinks ; the flatterer, as 
others like to hear. As you work, so shall you thrive. The 
stosm howled and tore as if it would uproot the forest altogether. 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Why? 

Words. — Therefore go. Why did you knock ? Wherefore 
did you not write ? Hence we parted. 

Phrases. — She died of grief The soldiers perished from 
hunger and thirst The accident happened through carelessness. 
He went for pleasure. I want money to buy books. He called 
to see you. 

Clauses. — He feels very much dejected, for he cannot find 
employment. I sent for the doctor, because the child was very 
sick. Since you will have it so, I will go with you. Live vir- 
tuously, that you may be happy. 

As to what? 

Phrases. — She is ashamed to dance. She has not the courage 
to speak to him. He is poor in money, but rich in knowledge. 
I am fond of strawberries and raspberries. I paid the book- 
seller for the books. He is indolent about every thing. I am 
able to pay him. . 

Clauses. — I consent that you go and see him. I feared lest I 
should lose it. I am glad that we have peace again. 

Propositions, or Simple Sentences, combined. 

Our thoughts consist of propositions, either single or com- 
bined. Propositions are combined in many different senses. 
The following are the principal modes of combining them. 

Addition. 

The coffee was good, and the rolls were excellent. I was 
alone, and the night was dark and stormy. That boy is very 
studious, and he is loved by all his classmates. The rivulet 
rested clear as crystal in the rocky urn, and large blue violets 
hung over the surrounding moss. 

Contrariety. 

He is a small man, but he is very strong. We started early, 
but we came an hour too late. He is stout and healthy in 
appearance, yet he has always been sickly. We lost the battle, 



LOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SENTENCES. 33 

notwithstanding we did our utmost to win it. Although he is 
accused, yet he is innocent. 

Alternation, or Choice. 

I will either send you my horse, or you may hire one at my 
expense. Neither spend your money before you have it, nor 
buy what you do not need. Either he will hate the one, and 
love the other ; or else he will hold to the one, and despise the 
other. 

Cause. 

This field will produce well, because the soil is fertile. I 
refused his presenter I knew he offered it from selfish motives. 
He is angry ; therefore let him alone. As it is impossible to 
go, let us remain contentedly at home. Since we cannot enjoy 
this world long, is it not strange that most people are so very 
avaricious ? 

Sometimes a sentence will consist of a combination of dif- 
ferently connected propositions ; as, " Great men undertake 
great things, because they are themselves great ; but fools un- 
dertake them, because they think them easy." (Cause and 

contrariety.) 

Condition. 

If I were in your place, I would join the army. Would 
you go, if you should be invited ? If there were no evil lis- 
teners, there would be no evil talkers. So it answers the pur- 
pose, it will matter little how indifferent it is. 

No Connective expressed. 

When no connective is expressed, the connecting sense gen- 
erally is that of and, for, but, if or that is. 

The woods are hushed, the waters rest. Every age has its 
pleasures ; every situation has its charms. It is not too late : it 
is only nine o'clock. He who renders a service, should forget 
it; he who receives it, should remember it. That concerns 
you, does it not ? Would you thrive ? rise at five. (If you 
would thrive, etc.) Had he done his duty, he would not now 
be in disgrace. 



PART II. 



WORDS UINTCOMIBI^ED. 



GRAMMAR AND ITS DIVISIONS. 



69. Grammar is the science which teaches how to 
speak and w r rite correctly. 

70. English Grammar is the science which teaches 
how T to speak and write the English language correctly. 

Every language can be investigated according to the following 
particulars : — 

1. The sounds of its words. 

2. The forms of its words. 

3. The classification of its words, according to their meanings and 
variations. 

4. The combination of its words, in the construction of sentences. 

5. The finish and ornament of sentences. Hence, — 

71. English Grammar is divided into five parts,* 
Pronunciation, Orihog'raphy, Etymology, Syntax, and 
Pros'ody. 

72. Pronunciation treats of the sounds and classifica- 
tion of letters, and of the sounds and stress of syllables in 
uttering separate words. 

73. Orthography treats of the forms of letters, and 
teaches how to spell words correctly. 



PRONUNCIATION. 35 

74. Etymology treats of the derivation, classes, and 
properties of words. 

75. Syntax treats of the relations and arrangement 
of words in sentences. 

76. Prosody treats of figures, versification, utterance, 
and punctuation. 

77. The basis of grammar, or the test of correctness 
in the use of language, is the usage of the best writers 
and speakers, 

PRONUNCIATION. 
LETTERS AND SOUNDS. 

78. Language consists gf a great variety of sounds, 
which are used as the signs of ideas, and are called words. 

79. These sounds can all be reduced to a small num- 
ber of simple sounds, which are represented to the eye 
by means of letters. 

80. A Letter is a character that denotes one or more 
of the elementary sounds of language, and is the least, 
distinct part of a written word. 

Examples. — A, b, c ; age, at, art ; bubble ; cent, cart. 

81. The English language contains about forty ele^ 
mentary sounds, which are represented by twenty-six 
letters, called the alphabet. 

The Phoneticians make forty-three elementary sounds. 
Long Vowels * : eel, ale, arm, all, ope, food. 
Short Vowels : ell, an, odd, wp, foot. 
Shade Vowels : earth, air, ask. 

* That the pupil may not confound the letters with their powers, let him 
substitute " Vocals " for u Vowels," " Diphthong Vocals " for " Diph- 
thongs," and " Liquid Sounds " for " Liquids." 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Diphthongs : isle, oil, owl, mule. 

Coalescents : yea. y ivay. 

Aspirate : hay. 

Explodents : rope, ro&e, fate, facte, etch, edge, lock, log. 

Continuants : safe, save, wreath, wreathe, buss, buzz, vicious, 
vision 

Liquids : fall, far. 

Nasal Liquids : seem, seen, sing. 

If we consider the foregoing " diphthongs " composite, equivalent 
to ti-i, o-i, ti'OO, and i-oo, our language will have but thirty-nine simple 
sounds. If we regard c as a more slender sibilant than s ; and if o, 
as heard inform, is broader or more orotund than a, as heard in fall, 
then we shall have forty-one simple sounds in all. — See p. 61. 

82 # Some letters represent several sounds each ; as a in at y 
art, all, etc. 

83. Sometimes different letters represent the same sound ; 
as c and s in " since " and " sense." 

84. Sometimes two or more letters represent but one sound ; 
as ph =f, in phleme ; eau = o, in beau ; ch, in church. 

85. Hence our alphabet is both defective and redundant; 
for a perfect alphabet should have one letter, and but one, for 
every simple sound. 

86. The name of a letter is what it is called in the alphabet 

87. The power of a letter is the sound, or oral element, 
represented by the letter. Some letters have several powers 
each. 

The name of a letter is generally one of its powers, or a syllable 
that shows the power ; but the name and the power should not be 
confounded. Thus, a represents the sounds of a, a, a, a. Kay shows 
the power, or oral element, represented by k. 

CLASSIFICATION OF LETTERS. 

88. The Letters are divided into vowels and conso- 
nants ; the consonants are divided into mutes and semi- 
vowels* and some of the semivowels are called liquids. 



PRONUNCIATION 37 

Vowels. 

89. A Vowel is a letter that denotes pure tone. 

The vowel sounds are formed by keeping the organs of speech 
more or less apart or open, or by letting the voice flow out freely. 
The organs of speech are the lips, the teeth, the tongue, the palate, 
and the glottis. 

90. The vowels are a, e, i, 0, and u. Also w and y 
are vowels, when equivalent to the vowels u and i; as in 
now and tyrant 

91. A Diphthong is the union of two vowels to de- 
note one sound. 

Ex.— Proper: ad, enjoy, ground. Improper : ear, -pour, your, 
deceit, sleight, 

92. A diphthong is proper, if the two vowels are 
heard, or denote a sound different from that of either ; 
improper, if only one vowel is heard. 

93. A Triphthong is the union of three vowels to 
denote one sound. 

Ex. — Beauty, bureau, view, lieu, buoy. 

94. Triphthongs are also divided, like diphthongs, into 
proper and improper. 

Consonants. 

95. A Consonant is a letter that can be fully uttered 
only with the aid of a vowel sound. It denotes a contact 
of some of the organs of speech, called an articulation. 

Some of the consonant sounds we modify by emitting breath ; as 
in the sounding of th or f. H denotes only an emission of breath. 

Some of the consonant sounds we modify by using the head as a 
sort of drum ; as in the sounding of m or I. 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

98# The consonants are all the letters except the 
vowels. 

97t W or y is a consonant, when a vowel sound fol- 
lows it in the same syllable ; as in water, T-o-wa, year, 
Bwi-yan. 

98 • U and i are consonants, when equivalent to the consonants w 
and y ; as in persuade, pon-iard, u-nit (consonant and vowel). 
X is equivalent to ks, gz, or z ; as in tax, ex-act, Xerxes. 

99, A Mute is a consonant that has no sound what- 
ever without the aid of a vowel, and at the end of a 
word stops the voice entirely. 

100t The mutes are b, p, d, t, k, qa (=&w); also 
c and g hard, as in lac and gig. 

*101. A Semivowel is a consonant that has some 
sound of its own, being in its nature between a vowel 
and a mute. 

1©2. The semivowels are all the consonants except the 
mutes. 

103. The Liquids are I, m, w, r ; and perhaps s and 
2, which are sometimes called sibilants. 

The liquids are so called from their soft sound, which 
easily flows into and unites with that of other letters. 

Ex. — String, brilliance. " Lull with Amelia's liquid name the 
Nine." — Pope. 

♦ 

104. A letter is said to be silent, when it is suppressed 
in pronunciation. 

Ex. — WaZk, kiln, night, victuals, hour, pJithisic. 

105. In singing, vowel sounds are made most prominent; 
and clear and distinct utterance is attained chiefly by pronoun- 
cing the consonants with exactness. 



PRONUNCIATION. 39 

ACCENT. 

106. Accent is a stress of voice on a certain syllable 
of a word. 

Ex. — Bak'-er, a-muse' ; an en'-trance, to en-trance'. "An au- 
gust' procession in the month of Au'-gusl." 

Accent belongs only to words of more syllables than one. 

Accent sometimes serves to distinguish words that are spelled alike, or 
to show the chief part of the word. 

107. Words of three or more syllables generally have 
a chief accent, called the primary accent; and one or 
more inferior accents, called the secondary accent or 
accents, 

Ex. — Lu'-nii-na'-ry, an'-te-ce'-dent, in-com'-pre-hen'-si-bil'-i-ty. 

108. Some words, mostly compounds, have two ac- 
cents of nearly equal stress. 

Ex. — A'-men', fare'-well' (interjection), knit'-ting-nee'-dle. 

109. The penult syllable of a word is the second sylla- 
ble from the end ; and the antepenult is the third sylla- 
ble from the end. 

110. Most words used in our language have the chief 
accent either on the penult or else on the antepenult. 

Pknult : Con'-quest, at-tor'-ney, dis-a-gree'-ment, Jer-e-mi'-ah. 
Antepenult: Tem'-per-ate, con-tin'-u-al, mu-ta-bil'-i-ty, Je-ru r - 
sa-lem. 

Ill, RULES FOR PRONUNCIATION. 

1. Give to every syllable its proper sound. 

Do jiot say ben for been, ware, for were, Mate for bleat, dreen for 
drain, Jceow for cow, toon for tune, sassy for saucy, rench for rinse, huf 
for hoof, pint for point, lam for learn, only for 5ri?y 9 guine for going, 
otter for after, winder for window, meader for meadow, hostile for hos- 
tile, genuine for genuine, America for America, Canader for Canada. 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Be careful not to omit any letter or letters of a 
syllable, nor any syllable or syllables of a word, that are 
not silent. 

Do not say kep for kept, ness for nests, lenth for length, strenth for 
strength, srub for shrub, sriek for shriek, mornin for morning, shinin for 
shining, chile for child, wuss for worse, goverment for government, hick- 
ry for hickory, particler for particular, spose for suppose. 

3. Place the accent on the proper syllable. 

Do not say fan'-atic for fanat'-ic, interest' -ing for in'-teresting, i'-dea 
for ide'-a, museum for muse'-um, indus'-try for in'-dustry, in'-quiry for 
inqui'-ry, hospit'-al for hos'-pital. 

4. Bear in mind that derivative words' are not always 
accented or pronounced like their primitives. 

Pyr'-amid, pyram'-idal, not pyr' -amidol; converse', con -versant, 
not convers-ant; lament', lam'-entable, not lament' -able ; preserve', 
pres-ervation, not preservation; a-pos -trophe, dp-os-troph'-ic, not 
a-pos -trophic. 

. 5. Remember that a change in the part of speech 
sometimes requires a change in the accent. 

To absent', to be ab'-sent ; to escort', an es'-cort ; to perfume 7 , a 
per'-fume. 

But sometimes we suppose such words differ in pronunciation, 
when they really do not To ally, an ally, not al'-ly ; to consent', 
my consent', not consent. 

6. In doubtful cases, pronounce words according to 
their spelling or according to analogy e 
Lieutenant is better pronounced loo-ten -ant than lev-ten -ant 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 
FORMS OF THE LETTERS. 
112. The letters are used in different styles ; as* 
Roman, Italic, Qsczifit, and ©lb Gnnglisl). 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 41 



113. The letters are printed in types of various sizes: 

Great Primer, Small Pica, ;^_ 

-^ , . , Long Primer, Agatej 

HingilSn, Bourgeois, Feari, 

Pica, 



Diamond. 

Brevier, 



114* The letters are used either as capital letters or 
as lower-case or small letters. 



CAPITAL LETTERS, 

115. Small letters are preferred in all ordinary writ- 
ing, except where capital letters are needed for dis- 
tinction. 

/ 116« Words that begin with capital letters, may be 
divided into two classes ; First Words, and Words that 
are themselves Words of Distinction./ 

First Words. 

117. The first word of every sentence, or phrase equiva- 
lent to a sentence, or the first word after a full pause, should 
begin with a capital letter. 

For examples, see any page of this book. 

118. Within a sentence, the first word of any impor- 
tant beginning may commence with a capital letter. 

Ex. — " Resolved, That our senators be requested," etc. 

" One truth is clear : Whatever is, is right." — Pope. 
W. Be it enacted by the Legislature of New York, that a tax, etc. 

1. Any part of a sentence, especially in enumeration, that is 
broken off to begin a new line for the purpose of making it 
more conspicaous, should begin with a capital letter. 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Ex. — " Our citizens have contributed — 

" To the support and improvement of schools, . $ 12,275 ; 
" To the building and repairing of bridges, . . . 5,1 30." 
" I am, Sir, with sincere esteem, 

" Your faithful servant, 

"Robert Peel." 
W. The work is admirably adapted to the use of schools, — 
by thorough and varied exercises ; 
by frequent and complete reviews; 
by simplicity of terms and arrangement. 

2. The first word of a direct quotation, an example, or other 
saying, so introduced as to imply a transition from one speaker 
to another, should begin with a capital letter. 

Ex. — Solomon says, " Pride goeth before destruction." Remem- 
ber this ancient maxim: " Know thyself." She called out, "Why 
did you go?" He answered, No. Stare is often used in a bad 
sense; as, " The impudent fellow stared at me." 

W. They shouted, " victory." Every tongue shall exclaim with 
heartfelt joy," Welcome ! welcome ! La Fayette.' 

feut indirect quotations or questions, resumed or partial 
quotations, and words quoted merely as language, should not 
begin with capitals. 

Ex. — Solomon says, that pride goes before destruction. She 
asked me why I went. This is indeed, as Chatham says, " a peril- 
ous and tremendous moment." 

With Mr. Headley, an event always " transpires." — Poe. 

3. The first word of- every line of poetry should begin with 
a capital letter. 

Ex. — " But now the smiles are thicker, 
Wonder what they mean ; 
Faith, he 's got the Knicker- 
bocker Magazine ! " — Saxe. 
W". Now bright the sunbeam on St. Lawrence smiles, 
^her million lilies, and her thousand isles. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 43 

Words of Distinction. 

119. The words J and should always be capitals, 

Ex. — u For / will not forsake thee, friend of my youth." 

W. He knew i was there. Such, o music ! is thy heavenly power. 

126. Every word denoting the Deity should begin 
with a capital letter. 

Ex. — The Most High; the Supreme; the Infinite One; to God 
and liis angels ; Divine Providence ; our Lord Jesus Christ ; the Fa- 
ther, the Son, and the Holy Ghost. 

" The hope of my spirit turns trembling to Thee" — Moore. 

W. The holy spirit; the eternal; the omnipotent; our saviour; 
to him who is the friend of the widow and the orphan. 

1. A common word that merely relates to God, must some- 
times begin with a capital letter, to show its reference to the 
Deity. 

Ex. — " The Hand that made us is divine." — Addison. " He who x 
is the Mind of the universe, overlooks no small things." — John 
Wilson. 

2. A pronoun used in connection with a name that is the 
chief word denoting the Deity, usually requires no capital. 

Ex. — " God provides for all his creatures." — Blair. "O thou 
merciful God!"— -Book of Common Prayer. 

W. O Lord, Thou Who art merciful and omnipotent, save us. 

3. An ordinary adjunct used as a part of a name that de- 
notes the Deity, or a word that describes rather than denotes 
the Deity, usually requires no capital. 

Ex. — The all-seeing Searcher of our hearts ; great Parent of good $ 
to Him who is the friend of the widow and the orphan. 

W. The King of Kings, and lord of lords ; the judge of the world. 
They were made by the Wisdom and Goodness of thy Hand. 

121 • Every proper noun, or each chief wprd of a 
proper noun, should begin with a capital letter. 






44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. , 

Ex. — Thomks, Susan, Sunday, Monday, May, Alabama ; George 
Washington ; Amelia B. Welby ; the Duke of Wellington ; Charles 
the First. When a word implying distinction or honor is constantly 
used with a proper noun, it becomes a part of the name itself. (The 
teacher should explain to the pupil what a proper noun is.) 

W. mary, george, march, Saturday, kentucky, henry 1. gaylor. 

122. Every title, whether used alone or in connection 
with a proper noun, should begin with a capital letter. 

Ex. — Mr. Brown ; Mrs. Elizabeth B. Browning ; Dr. Vaughan ; 
Maj. Holt; Gen. Washington; Sir Isaac Newton; James M. Mar- 
low, Esq. ; Alexander the Great; a letter from the Hon. Robert 
Wells. " The petty governor of Shiraz has the title of ' Flower of 
Courtesy,' ' Nutmeg of Consolation/ and ' Rose of Delight.'" — Gaz- 
etteer. " l You are old, Father William,' the young man replied." 

— Southey. " So Master Dick went off on his travels." — 0. W. 
Holmes. " The Doctor now heard the approach of clattering hoofs." 

— Id. 
W. From capt. Jones ; lord Byron ; Joseph Allen, esq. ; a speech 

from gov. Andrew. John bull can tell brother Jonathan what are 
the consequences of being too fond of glory. 



Proper names consist chiefly of the names of persons, places, and 
time. They are therefore \ery numerous, amounting to millions. 
And since it is not always easy to make a new and acceptable prop- 
er name, a common word or phrase of the language, whose meaning 
is supposed to suit, is often taken and made a sort of proper name. 

1. When a new prtper n«um is made fr©m an aid «ne, by 
the addition «f same cimin#n w»rd, the ctmmon werd gener- 
ally begins with a capital. 

Ex. — Orleans, New Orleans; Cambridge, East Cambridge; Bos- 
ton, South Boston, Boston Neck; Scott, Gen. Scott; Jefferson, Jef- 
ferson City: Madison, Madison Square; Astor, Astor House; Ver- 
non, Mount Vernon; Pike, Pike's Peak; Mexico, the Gulf of Mex* 
ico ; Britaiu, the British Channel. 

W. Rhode Jsland ; Miller's Sanding ; lower California ; Japan 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 45 

sea ; Harper's -ferry ; Lafayette Jplace ; Hudson's (feay ; the Jay of 
Honduras ; ^ake Erie^; cape Ann ; Qmount Auburn ; Cook's^ ^nlet ; 
Behring's j^trait; the strait of Magellan; Queen Charlotte's |ound; 
Faneuil tiall ; William and Mary's Igpllege. 

2. When a common word or phrase of the language is 
raised to the dignity of a proper noun for a particular object, 
the word or chief words should begin with capitals. 

Ex. — The Park ; Salt River ; Great Bear Lake ; Lake Superior ; 
the Black Sea ; Big Sandy ; Land's End ; the Cape of Good Hope ; 
the United States ; the Western States ; the Mountains of the Moon ; 
the Old South Church ; the City Hall ; a book called — The Tem- 
ple of Truth. 

To this Lead may be referred the titles of books and topics. 

"W. The laurel hills; the dead sea; white river; sandy hook; a 
hill called cedar crest ; the lake of the woods ; point lookout ; the 
five points ; pea ridge ; the white sulphur springs ; the rocky moun- 
tains ; union square ; central park ; on fifth avenue, near spruce 
street; from the common, to the dry dock. 



123. A common noun applied to a personified object, 
often becomes a proper noun in sense, and should then be- 
gin with a capital letter. 

Ex. — " The Wind and the Sun loved the Rose, 
But the Rose loved but one ; 
For who recks the wind where it blows, 
Or loves not the sun! 9 — Bulwer. 
W. Pride, poverty, and fashion, once undertook to keep house 
together. 

124, Every word derived from a proper norm should 
begin with a capital letter. 

Ex. — Columbia, American, Roman, Jesuit, Christian, Scotchman. 
" He is the Cicero of his age." " A Southern man is from the South." 
W. These Spaniards joined the Italian army. 

125# But when such a word has lost its reference to 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the proper noun, and has become a common word of 
the language, it should not begin with a capital. 

Ex. — A guinea, sandwiches, damask, * daguerrotype, galvanize, 
china-ware. 

126. A word of special importance or emphasis, or a 
word so peculiarly or technically applied as not to be 
sufficiently definite if written otherwise, should begin 
with a capital letter. 

Ex. — The General Assembly; the excellence of our Constitu- 
tion ; the War Department ; William Penn with several Friends ; 
the American Revolution. " The Reform Bill." — London Times, 
" Education is the great business of the Institute." — Holmes. " The 
other member of the Committee was the Rev. Mr. Butters, who was 
io make the prayers before the Exercises of the Exhibition." — Id. 

W. Put this motto upon the banner ; " The union, the constitu- 
tion, and the enforcement of the laws." 

' Frequently, in accordance with the foregoing rule, the subject of 
discourse is commenced with a capital letter; as, "The disasters 
which this little band of Puritans encountered " — Everett. 

121 . In capitalizing phrases or sentences, whether used 
as titles or as headings, distinguish the nouns by capitals ; 
also important adjectives, participles, or other words ; but 
always write the mere particles in small letters. 

Ex. — Episcopal Innovation ; or, the Test of Modern Orthodoxy, in 
Eighty-seven Questions, imposed as Articles of Faith, upon Candidates 
for Licenses and Holy Orders^ in the Diocese of Peterborough ; with a 
Distinct Answer to each Question, and General Refections relative to 
their Illegal Structure and Pernicious Tendency. — Sidxey Smith. 

128. Names, titles, or mottoes, when very emphatic, or 
when designed to catch the eye from a distance, are frequently 
printed or painted wholly in capitals. And in Advertisements 
or Notices ; the liberty of capitalizing is carried to a great and 
almost indefinite extent. | 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 47 

Examples to be Corrected. 

Formula. — Incorrect : the word , beginning with a small — ^ 

should begin with a capital — ; because . (Give the precept violated, 

as presented on some preceding page; and vary the Formula when a 
variation is needed.) 

1. These J^irds go South in Winter, but return in Spring 
or Rummer. — Audubon. 

2. for Rent or Sale, balance, $ 9.25. 

3. When Laud was arraigned, "%n any one believe me a 
traitor?" exclaimed the astonished prelate. — Bancroft. 

4. The question is, ^hieh of them can best pay the penalty ? 

5. The answer may be, yes or no. 

6. The bible says, children, obey your parents. 

7. The blood of those who have Fallen at eoncorcV'lexing- 
ton, and Bunker hill, cries aloud, i( At is time to parte" 

8. Lindley murray teaches, "Avhen a quotation is brought in 
obliquely after a comma, a Capital is unnecessary ; as.^olomon 
observes, iThat the child is spoiled by sparing the rod." — J 
octavo gramma? % ,^f^2S4:. 

9. .Washington city, the Capital of the united states, is in 
theOlistrict of Columbia. " \ . y 

10. This jfhief had the sounding appellation of white thunder. 

11. In ancient ;days there dwelt a sage called discipline. 

12. There lay itmdam ipartlet, basking in the sun, breast- 
high in sand. 

13* Falsehood sheltered herself among the passions. 

14. This bounty was settled bys^felsh emigrants, who were 
zealous -cliristians, and entered heartily into our Revolutionary 
struggle. rff 

15. New year's day and thejburth of July are holidays. 

16. Covvper, the Author ofjthe Task, was a good Poet. 

17. The^ecretary ofjftate visited fortress Monroe. 

18. The president lives in the '^(JniteTnouse. n 

19. He was President of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 
and the Editor of the Bostonilaily advertiser. 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

20. The Missouri /feompromise was discussed in the Senate. 

21. A Presbyterian minister preached every raunclay at tirest 
Brookfield. 

22. She is gone to him who comforteth as a father com- 
forteth. 

23. The Guests were . entertained by mayor Rice, at his 
residence, no. 34, union park. 

24. Believe not each aspersing tongue, 

as most weak people do ; 
but still conclude that story wrong 
which ought not to be true. 



SYLLABLES. 

^ -^ 129# A Syllable is a letter, or a union of letters, pro- 
" nounced as one unbroken sound. 

Ex. — A, on, no, stretched, barb'dst, a-e-ri-al, pro-fu-sion. 

130. Every syllable must consist of one or more vow- 
els, or of one or more vowels combined with one or 
more consonants. 

Ex. — O, i-dle, au-tumn, bro-ker, an, ants, dot, breast. 



SYLLABICATION. 

131 • Syllabication is the division of words into syl- 
lables. 

132. Words are divided into syllables, to show their 
pronunciation or derivation. 

Ex. — De-pose, dep-o-si-tion, re-in-force-ment, lov-er, rain-bow. 
Syllabication thus enables us, in writing, to divide words properly 
at the ends of lines. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 49 

133. In dividing words into their syllables, we should 
give to every syllable precisely those letters which the 
correct pronunciation of the word gives to it. 

Ex. — Su-prem-a-cy, pro-cras-ti-nate, pref-ace, oth-er, ma-ter-nal, 
as-tron-o-my, twin-kle, tic-kle, Rob-ert, E-liz-a-beth. 

W. Plan-ting, un-loa-ding, ma-keth, or-ga-ni-zing, e-squire, go- 
vern, cons-ti-tu-tion, va-le-tu-din-a-ri-an, mark-et. 

134. Words should generally be divided according to 
their prefixes, suffixes, or grammatical endings, if they 
have any ; and compound words should be divided into 
their simple ones. 

Ex. — Re-new, ring-let, great-er, wis-est, ful-ly, boat-swain. 
*W. X)ril-ling, wea-ver, a-noth-er, wi-ser, ren-ted. 

135. When derivation and pronunciation, conflict, the 
division must be made according to the pronunciation. 

Ex. — Ap-a-thy, not a-path-y ; rec-ol-lec-tion (remembrance), ap- 
os-tol-ic-al, ther-mom-e-ter, pred-i-cate, prop-o-si-tion. 

W. A-scribe, or-tho-graph-y, pre-fer-ence, de-po-sf-tion, par-ti-ci- 
pi-al. 

136. A word that has more syllables than one, may be 
divided at the end of a line, but* only at the close of a 
syllable. 

The part in either line should consist of at least more letters 
than one, and be of such a nature that it is not likely to be miscon- 
ceived at the first impression. Such words as a-long 7 a-gain, o-lio, 
craft-?/, read-y, curv-ed, should rather stand wholly in one line ; and 
such words as accojnpli-ces, advanta-ges, should rather be divided 
accom-plices, advan-tages. 

Divide into syllables : — 

Artery, sorcery, luscious, varnish, blanket, plekle, musket, 
extraordinary, possession, decision, nevertheless, western, mon- 
key, paternal, unserviceable, reformation, recreate, reelect, 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

grafter, rafter, charter, chanter, waiter, traitor, felony, felonious, 
active, picture, pitcher, lounger, noisy, knitting, shilling, willing, 
azure, national, siren, soldier, associate, pronunciation, Boston, 
Diana. 

EULES FOR SPELLING. 

137. Spelling is the art of expressing words by their 
right letters, properly arranged. This art must be 
learned chiefly from spelling-books, dictionaries, and 
observation in reading, 

Bule I, — Doubling, 

Words of one syllable, ending in a single consonant 
preceded by a single vowel ; and words of more syllables, 
ending in the same way, with the accent fixed on the 
last syllable, — double the consonant before a vowel in 
the derivative word. 

Ex. — Sad, sadder, saddest ; rebel', rebelled, rebellion ; rob, robber ; 
win, ivinning ; fop, foppish; drum, drummer; up, upper; admit, ad^ 
mittance; quiz, quizzed. 

In other cases, no doubling takes place. 

Ex. — Seal, sealed; gild, gilded ; hard, harder; infer', (infer'ra/,) 
inference ; bigot, bigoted; tax, taxed. X final = two consonants, ks 
or gz; therefore never doubled. 

There is a difference between robed and robbed, planing and planning, Jiater and hatter. 

Good writers sometimes double I, contrary to the Rule above. 
Ex. — " Traveller " — Prescott, Bryant ; " carolled " — Irving. 

Rule II. — Pinal Y. 

Final Y, preceded by a consonant and followed by any 
letter except i, is changed into i in the derivative word. 
Ex. — Fly, flies ; glory, glories, glorify, glorified, glorifying^ glorifi- 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 51 

cation , try, trial ; pretty, prettier, prettiest ; merry, merrily, merri- 
ment; pity, pitiable ; ivy, ivied. 

Exc ep tions: Most of the derivatives of sly, dry, and shy usually 
retain y ; as, dryly, slyness. 

Final Y, preceded by a vowel, or followed by t, remains 
unchanged in the derivative w r ord. 

Ex. — Chimney, chimneys; gay, gayer, gayest, gayety ; cry, crying, 
crier; buoy, buoyant; destroy, destroyer; annoy, annoyance; joy, 
joyful- 
Exceptions: Pay, paid; said, laid, daily; staid (remained), 
stayed (checked). 



Rule III.— Final E. 

Final E, when silent, is rejected before a vowel in the 
derivative word. But it is retained when needed to keep 
c or g soft, or to preserve the identity of the word. 

Ex. — Bite, biting; force, forcible ; sale, salable ; rogue, roguish. 
Agree, agreeable; peace, peaceable; singe, singeing : glue, gluey. 
There is a difference between dying and dyeing, singing and singeing. 
Words ending with ie change i into y, before i, to prevent the 
doubling of i ; as, Die, dying ; vie vying ; tie, tying ; lie, lying. 

Final E is retained before a consonant in the derivative 
word. Sometimes it is rejected when not needed. 

Ex. — Base, baseless; rue, rueful; definite, definitely ; eye, eyelet; 
whole, wholesome, but wholly. Due, duly; true, truly; awe,aivful; 
judge, judgment. (D softens the g, and renders the e unnecessary.) 

Monosyllables that end with f, I, or s, preceded by a single 
vowel, generally have this consonant double, as cliff, mill, pass ; 
words that end with any other consonant in the same way, 
generally have it single, as man, cat, map. The final consonant 
of a primitive word generally remains double, but should not be 
trebled, in the derivative word, as in blissful, skillful, fully. 



52 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



One I is often dropped from 11, especially when the accent is on 
some other syllable ; as in shalt, always, welcome, fulfill', useful. 
Derived verbs generally prefer the ending ize to ise, as legal, 
legalize, Ei after c, as in ceiling, deceive ; generally ie after 
any other letter, as in siege, lien, sieve. Specie, seize, inveigle, 
and a few other words, are exceptions. 

Compound words generally retain the spelling of the words 
from which they are formed ; as, housewife, juryman, illness, 
wherein. Where, wherever ; whose, ivhosever ; sheep, shepherd; 
feet, fetlock ; pass, pastime ; well, welfare I holy, holiday, — are 
some of the exceptions. 

138. Generally speaking, spelling and pronunciation 
are the better, the better they agree, and serve to dis- 
tinguish words that differ in meaning. 

Ex. — Gray is preferable to grey ; haul, to hale ; and show, to shew. 

139. Contraction, in spelling, is the omission of some 
letter or letters from a word. An apostrophe (') is 
generally put in the place of what is omitted. 

Ex. — E'er, ever ; o'er, over ; 'gainst, against ; o'clock, of the clock. 

Sometimes two or more words are contracted into one, and the 
parts combined are occasionally changed in spelling. 'Tis or it's is 
used for it is ; won't, for will not ', I'd, for / would or / had. 





Exercises in Spell 


ing. 


KULE I. 


Rule II. 


Role III. 


MlSCELLANEOUSr 


Swimming, 


Witticism, 


Pining, 


Scarred, 


steaming, 


laziness, 


pinning, 


scared, 


thinned, 


gayety, 


valuable, 


solely, 


learned, 


wearisome, 


chargeable, 


wholly, 


airy, 


moneyed, 


striving, 


till, 


starry, 


allies, 


fusible, 


\until, 







ETYMOLOGY. 


e 


druggist, 


alleys, 


sedgy, 


truly, 


acquittal, 


reliable, 


smoky, 


singeing, 


benefited, 


relying, 


stylish, 


gluing, 


dreaded, 


thriftily, 


paroled, 


hoeing, 


referred, 


gayiy, 


patrolled, 


recall, 


reference, 


daily, 


vy in g> 


willful, 


regretted, 


likelihood, 


advertisement, 


countryman, 


propeller, 


holiday, 


traceable, 


receipt, 


shopping, 


spied, 


servilely, 


siege, 


galloping. 


spy-glass. 


acknowledgment. 


colonize. 



53 



140. The most ludicrous blunders in spelling are usu- 
ally made by the misapplication of those words which 
agree in pronunciation, but differ in spelling and mean- 
ing. 


Correct the errors : He was brefyl for, the church. Hawks pray on 

other birds. The judge immediately bdled the prisoner. The bench- 
es were all in titers, one above another. All those barrels for sail, • Jl 
at ten o'clock. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



WORDS. 

141. Letters make syllables, syllables make words, 
words make sentences, and sentences express thoughts. 

142. A Word is a syllable, or a union of syllables, 
used as the sign of an idea. 

Ex. — Man, horse, pink, green, strikes, down, because. 

143. Wokds are divided, according to their number 
of syllables, into monosyllables, dissyllables, trisyllables, 
and polysyllables. 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A monosyllable is a word of one syllable. Act. 
A dissyllable is a word of two syllables. Active* 
A trisyllable is a word of three syllables. Actively. 
A polysyllable is a word of four or more syllables. 

Activity. 

144. Words are divided, according to their formation, 
into primitive, derivative, and compound. 

A primitive word is not formed from another word. 

Breeze. 
A derivative word is formed from another word. Breezy. 
A compound word is composed of two or more words. 

Sea-breeze, nevertheless. 

145. Words are divided, according to their use, into 
nine classes, called parts of speech. — See p. 70. 

DERIVATION OF WORDS. 

146. The elements of words, in derivation, are roots* 
prefixes, and suffixes. 

147. A Root is the chief part of a word, or that part 
which receives the prefix or the suffix. 

148. A Pre'fix is a letter or letters joined to the be- 
ginning of a word, to modify its meaning. 

149. A Suffix is a letter or letters joined to the end 
of a word, to modify its meaning. 

Prefixes. Roots. 

Be, down. De - press ; to press down. 

Re, again. Re - build ; to build again. 

Ex, out. Ex - pel (drive) ; to drive out. 

Con, together. Con - nect (join) ; to join together. 

Uh, not. Un - sound; not sound. 



ETYMOLOGY. 55 

Suffixes. Roots. 

Able, can be. Read-a&Ze ; can be read. 

Er, person or thing. Eead-er; one who reads, a reading-book. 

En, to make. Blaek-erc ; to make black. 
Ness, state or quality. . Happi-ness ; the state of being happy. 

Y, having, resembling. Ston-y ; having stones, hard as stone. 

Sometimes a word has two or more prefixes or suffixes ; as, re-pro- 
duct-ive-ness. 

150. Hoots are either native or foreign, and sometimes 
much disguised. 

Ex. — Bakei*y is derived from bake. Attract' is derived from the 
Latin ad, to, and iralio, I draw. Idea, from the Greek eido, I see, 
denotes something " in the mind's eye." 

151 • Derivative words are formed from primitives, by 
means of prefixes or suffixes ; and compound words are 
formed by uniting primitives or derivatives. 

Ex. — Plant, re-plant, trans-plant, 2w-plant. Act, act-or, act-ive, 
act-ivity ; great, great-esL Blacksmith, spelling-book. 

152. There are different prefixes capable of expressing 
the same sense, and there are also different suffixes ca- 
pable of expressing the same sense. The choice of pre- 
fixes or suffixes is therefore determined not merely by 
their meaning, but also by euphony, analogy, and the 
character of the root. 

Ex. — Generous, tm-generous; accurate, I'rc-accurate ; throne, de- 
throne, wn-throne ; confess, confess-*0tt ; acknowledge, acknowledg- 
ment 

153. Frequently, in making derivative or compound 
words, some of the parts must be altered for the sake of 
euphony or analogy. Hence there occurs sometimes a 
change, an omission, or an insertion of some letter or 
liters. The last letter of the prefix must often be the 
same as the first letter of the root. 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Ex. — Con-lect, col-lect; dis-fer, dif-fer ; in-moderate, im-mode- 
rate ; con-operate, co-operate ; dis-vulge, di-vulge ; a-arehy, an-archy ; 
mucilage-ous, mucilag-inous. 



Compound Words. 

154. Two or more words, expressing but one concep- 
tion, or habitually used together as the term for one 
object or idea, should be compounded. 

Ex. — Horseman, gooseberry, rainbow, to-morrow, four-footed. 
" A five-cent savings-bank ; " " blue-eyed, golden-haired Mary." 

A crow is a black bird, but not a blackbird. A glass house is made 
of glass ; but a glass-house is a house in which glass is manufactured. 
A live oak is simply a living oak ; but a live-oak is a species of ever- 
green oak. A dancing master is a master that dances ; but a dan- 
cing-master teaches dancing. A white washed house may not be a 
white-washed house. Many-colored birds have many colors each ; 
vtany colored birds are numerous, though they may all be of one 
color. A dog's-ear is the corner of a leaf turned over ; but a dog's 
ear is the ear of a dog. A lady's slipper is a shoe \ but lady's -slipper 
is a plant. 

155. When a compound word is first formed or but 
little used, a hyphen is generally placed between its parts. 

Ex. — Night-robber, rosy-fingered ; the tree-and- cloud-shadowed 
river. 

156. By long and general use, most compound words 
lose the hyphen, provided the parts coalesce like the 
syllables of one word and under one chief accent. 

Ex. — Statesman, steamboat, railroad, inkstand, no'bleman, book'- 
seller, home'sickness, notwithstanding. 

For more, in regard to compound words see pp. 260 and 345. 

[A sufficient knowledge of prefixes, suffixes, and roots is so generally 
obtained from spelling-books and other sources, that we have followed the 
advice of many eminent teachers, and omitted the rest of this subject.] 



QUESTIONS. 



57 



QUESTIONS FOE REVIEW. 



7H 



1. What is Grammar ? . . .1169 

2. What is English Grammar? . 70 

3. Into what parts is it divided? . 71 

4. Of what does Pronunciation treat? 72 

5. Of what does Orthography treat? 73 

6. Of what does Etymology treat? . 74 

7. Of what does Syntax treat? . 75 

8. Of what does Prosody treat? . 76 

9. What is the basis of grammar ? 

10. Of what does language consist ? 

11. To what can these sounds be reduced ? 79 

12. What is a letter? .... 80 

13. How many elementary sounds has 

the English language? and how 
many letters to represent them ? 81 
34 What is the name of a letter ? . 86 

15. What is the power of a letter ? . 87 

16. Our alphabet is both defective and 

redundant : explain how it is so. 82-5 

17. How are the letters classified ? . 88 

18. What is a vowel ? .... 89 

19. Which letters are vowels ? . 90 

20. What is a diphthong? ... 91 

21. A proper diphthong? An improper? 92 

22. What is a triphthong? ... 93 

23. What is a consonant ? 95 

24. Which letters are consonants ? . 96 

25. When are iv and y vowels ? and 

when consonants ? . . . 90, 97 

26. What is a mute? .... 99 

27. Which letters are mutes ? . . 100 

28. What is^a semivowel ? . . . 101 

29. Which are the semivowels? . 102 

30. Which letters are called liquids? 

and why? .... 103 

31. When is a letter silent ? . 104 

32. What is accent ? ... 106 

33. What is said of primary accent and 

of secondary accent? . . 107 

34. What is said of two equal accents on 

the same word ? 108 

35. Which syllable of a word is the pe- 

nult ? which is the antepenult ? 109 

36. Give the first rule for pronuncia- 

tion , — the second ; — the third ; 
— the fourth ; — the fifth ; — the 
sixth Ill 

37. In what styles are the letters used? 112 

38. In what sizes of type ? . . .113 

39. How are they distinguished in form ? 114 
40 How are small letters used? and 

for what are capitals used? . 115 

41. How may words beginning with 

capital letters be classified? . 116 

42. What is said of the first word of 

every sentence ? . . . 117 

43. When are capital letters used with- 

in sentences ? . . . • 118 

44. What is said of parts of a sentence 

that begin anew ? 

45. Of direct quotations? 
43. Of indirect quotations? 

47. Of lines of poetry ? 

48. Of /and O! 119 

3* 



127 
129 



130 
131 



132 



Of words denoLng the Deity ? . 120 

When does a pronoun, denoting the 
Deity, not require a capital ? 

What is said of proper names ? . 121 

Of titles ? 122 

Of new proper names made from 
old ones ? 

Of common phrases made proper 
names ? 

Of titles of books ? 

Of the names of personified objects ? 123 

Of words derived from proper names? 124 

When should such a word not begin 
with a capital ? 125 

What is said of words that are par- 
ticularly important or emphatic, or 
that are used in a technical sense ? 126 

How are phrases or sentences cap 
italized ? . 

What is a syllable ? . . . 

Every syllable must have, at least 
what kind of letter? 

What is syllabication ? 

Why are words divided into sylla- 
bles? . . . . . 

How are words divided into sylla- 
bles? 133-5 

What is said of dividing words at 
the ends of lines ? . . . . 133 

What is spelling ? . . . .137 

From what m ust this art be learned ? 137 

What is the first Rule? 

What is the second Kule? 

What is the third Rule ? 

What is said of contraction, in spell- . 
ing? 139 

W hat is a word ? . . . .142 

How are words classified according 
to their syllables? . . .143 

What is a monosyllable ? 

What is a dissyllable ? 

What is a trisyllable ? 

What is a polysyllable ? 

How are words classified according 

• to their formation ? 144 

What is a primitive word? 

What is a derivative word ? 

What is a compound word ? 

How are words classified according 

to their use ? 145 

What are the elements of words, in 
derivation? 146 

What is a root ? . . . . 147 

What is a prefix? . . . .148 

What is a suffix ? . . . 149 

What is said of roots ? . . .150 

From what are derivative and com- 
pound words formed ? . . 151 

What variations do the elements of 
words sometimes undergo, in deri- 
vation ? . 

When are words compounded ? . 

When is the hyphen used ? 

When is the hyphen omitted ? . 



153 
154 
355 
156 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Grammar. — Since the different nations of the earth speak different 
languages, — as, English, French, German, Italian, Spanish, etc., — every 
language has many peculiarities of its own ; and these peculiarities, which 
generally make the burden of its grammar, are sometimes called the par- 
ticular grammar of the language to which they belong. But since people 
and the world are everywhere much alike, and since people therefore think 
everywhere nearly in the same way, it follows that all languages have 
much in which they agree, and this is sometimes called universal grammar. 

We have said that the basis of grammar is the usage of the best writers 
and speakers. This usage is merely a convenient test for determining 
what is proper or improper ; for the real basis of grammar must be sought 
in the laws of mind and in the requirements of thought, or it is the philoso- 
phy of thought and language applied to the requirements of human knowl- 
edge in all its extent and variety. 

As to the two kinds of language, spoken and written, spoken language 
has the advantage in the power of enforcing its meaning by means of 
voice, emphasis, and gestures ; but written language, in modern times, by 
the help of the press and other facilities, has greatly the advantage in du- 
rability and the almost unlimited powers of circulation. 

Pronunciation. — Among the educated, the pronunciation of the Eng- 
lish language is everywhere nearly the same ; but, among the uneducated, 
there is considerable diversity. In the United States, how r ever, there is 
less deviation from the literary standard than in Great Britain. 

The modern pronunciation of the English language differs also very 
much from that which prevailed about five hundred years ago, or in the 
time of Chaucer. This is evident from the old spelling, and from the re- 
quirements of the rhyme and metre in old verse. 
" The soun of briddes for to hear, 

That on the bushes singen clear." — .Chaucer. 
"And she was cleped Madam Eglantine; 

Full well she sange the service divine." — 7c?. 
" He stode the bright moone to beholde, 

And alle his sorrowe to the moone he tolde." — 7c?. 
"Me thinketh it accordant to reason, 

To tellen you alle the condition." — Id. 
" And whanne this alchymister saw his time, 
Ris'th up, Sir Priest, quod he, and stondeth by me." — Id. 
Here final e's, and other endings not now in use, are made syllables. 
Reason and condition are pronounced with the accent on the last syllable, 
somewhat as in French. Time is pronounced ti-me ; for it was made to 
rhyme with by me. 



PRONUNCIATION. 59 

■ 

From the foregoing and other examples we may infer three things : — 

1. Pronunciation formerly had more syllables than it now has. Most 
of these extra syllables consisted of faint or draggling syllables at the ends 
of words. In some German dialects the people have even at the present 
day the habit of annexing obscure a to most of their words, (somewhat 
as bad readers annex ers,) by which they apparently make their speech 
more rhythmical. Query: Was the English language ever pronounced as 
these German dialects ? 

2. Accent was formerly more Continental, or French, than it now is ; 
that is, it has since glided more from syllables near the end to syllables 
near the beginning : it has also become more permanent. In Chaucer we 
have virtue and virtue, nature and nature, langdge and langage. % 

3. The sounds of certain words are now different from what they were, 
and the vowel sounds have generally run into greater variety. An was 
sounded ain; heart, hert ; gold, goold\ great, great, etc. ("None but an 
Irishman would say great." — Chesterfield.) Even within our recollection, 
the broad sound of grass, half, and last, has passed into grass, half, and last. 

English pronunciation has a hasty air, tends to brevity, slides its accents 
toward the left, and gradually improves in melody, or musical variety 
An omnibus has become a mere 'bus ; Brougham is pronounced Broom; 
Worcester, Woos-ter ; and Michilimackinac loses its serpentine length in 
MacJc'-e-naw. A balco'ny has become a bal'cony ; con' -template is now more 
common than contem'-plate ; o-be-je-ent has yielded to the more euphonious 
o-be-di-ent; and pro-nun-ci-a-tion is becoming more common than pro-nun- 
she-a-tion. 

Poetry sometimes adopts antiquated modes of expression because they 
tend to give it an elegant quaintness. But poetry, written long ago, must 
sometimes be pronounced, for the sake of the rhyme, as the language was 
pronounced when the verse was written. 

"Lo! the poor Indian, whose untutored mind 
Sees God in clouds or hears him in the wind." — Pope. 
" Tell me, where is fancy bred, — 
In the heart, or in the head ? 
How begot, how nourished ? " — Shakespeare. 
Here wind must be pronounced wind, to rhyme with mind; and ed must 
be sounded, so as to rhyme with head. 

The verbal ending ed is yet heard in the speech of some very old peo- 
ple ; but, unless the word is used adjectively, as in the phrase a learned 
man, this ending is. now generally blended with the preceding syllable 
when it will coalesce with it in sound. 

Accent. — !• Words ending with the sound of shun, zhun, or chun, o? 
2* D 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

with any kindred sound, have the chief accent on the penult ; as, content- 
pla'-tion, decis'-ion, conven' -tion, artift-cial, coura'-geous, insuffi' -cient. 

2. Words ending with cive, sive, ic, ics, or with five preceded by a conso- 
nant, have the chief accent on the penult; as, deci'-sive, hero'-ic, sulphu'-ric, 
calisthen'-ics, colled -tive. 

Exceptions: Arith'-metic, ar'-senic (noun), ad'-jective, bish'-opric, 
cath'-olic, chol'-eric, ephem'-eric, herpetic, lu'-natic, pol'-itic, pol'-itics, 
rhet'-oric, sub'-stantive, tur'-meric, and perhaps pleth'-oric and splen'-etic. 

3. Words that have the following endings, have the chief accent on the 
antepenult : — 

Acal, acy, athy. Heli'-acal, theoc'-racy, sym'-pathy. 

E-al, e-an, e-ous. Or'-deal, Hercu'-lean, sponta'-neous. 

Efy, ety, erous. Stu'-pefy, sati'-ety, aurif'-erous. 

Fluent, Jluous. Circum'-fluent, super'-fluous. 

Go?ial,a:raphy. Diag'-onal, orthog'-raphy. 

La, i-ac, vol. Rega'-lia, demo'-niac, armo'-rial. 

I-an, teal, i-ous. Colle'-gian, astronom'-ical, contume'-lious. 

Lnous, ify, ity. Om'-inous, person'-ify, solid'-ity. 

Logy, loquy, lysis. Anal'-ogy, col'-loquy, paral'-ysis. 

Meter, metry. Barom'-eter, trigonom'-etry. 

Orous, ulous. O'-dorous, sed'-ulous. 

Phony, torny, thropy. Eu'-phony, anat'-omy, misan'-thropy. 

Exceptions: Adamante'-an, antipode'-an, colosse'-an, cano'-rous, 
empyre'-an, hymene'-al, hymene'-an, pygme'-an. 

4. Words of three or more syllables, ending with ative, have the accent 
on the antepenult, or on the preceding syllable ; as, demon' -strative, op'-e- 
rative, nom'-inative, pal'-liative, sped-ulative. 

Exceptions : Crea'-tive, colla'-ti ve, dila'-tive. 

Letters. — There is not, perhaps, any other language in the world that 
has experienced so many revolutions as the English ; but, like the political 
institutions of the people by whom it is spoken, it seems to have gained 
strength and excellence by every change. 

About a thousand years ago, our ancestors used what is called the 
Anglo-Saxon Alphabet. This alphabet is as follows : — 

Sa, B b, E c, D b, Ge, F p, C £, p h, I i, LI, CD m, N n, Oo, 
P p, R p, S r , T fc, U u, UU p, X x, Y y. p p {th aspirate), D & (th, 
vocal). 

Then followed the Old English, or Black Letter. 

& a, B i), <£ c, 3D tr, 2B e, $ f, «K & Wh * ft 3 h 2& &♦ %l> 
Mm, Hd n, (Do, 33 p, <k q, Er, S s, E t, U it, Ub, W to, 
Xp, ¥ g, Z h 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 61 

These were superseded by the much more beautiful Roman Alphabet, 
which is the alphabet now generally used. 

Powers Of the Letters. — In considering the alphabet, we should no- 
tice, and keep distinct, two things : — 

1 . The written elements of language, which are letters. [breath, 

2. The oral elements of language, which Consist of tone, articulation, and 
Hence the oral elements have been sometimes classified into vocals, sab- 
vocals, and aspirates. But this classification does not present the truth be- 
yond the vocals ; for nearly all the elements denoted by consonants are 
composite. The following is probably as minute an analysis of the oral 
elements as the pupil can understand : — 

Pure tone. 
Ex. — ^le, at, art, all, me, met, pine, pin, old, odd, move, use, ms, thou, oil. 

Pure breath. 
Ex. — ffat. 

Toned articulation. 
Ex. —Bib, did, gig, judge, loll, mum, nun, ring, roar, thus, van, we, yet, zone, axure. 

Aspirated articulation. 
Ex. — Fife, kick, pop, since, tit, theme, sheen, che&n, whip. 

The powers of the consonants are most readily obtained by simply 
omitting the vowel sounds with which they are uttered. The element de- 
noted by s consists of* a whistling sound made purely of breath. Admit 
tone, and you have z. The sounds denoted by the consonants w and y are 
very nearly vowel sounds. The same is true of h ; or, denoting mere 
breath, h leaves the vowel after it nearly bare. 

Capital Letters. — Formerly, every noun was commenced with a cap- 
ital letter ; and other important words of the sentence were sometimes 
commenced in the same way. The following is a specimen of the usage 
in fashion a hundred years ago : — 

" A Deadly Feud had long fubfifted between the Houfes of Malcolm and 
Douglas 5 but it happened that the Heir of Malcolm faved the Heir of 
Douglas in Battle, and this Act produced an Inviolable Friendfhip between 
them." — London Chronicle. 

Beginnings. — Persons of not much skill in composition frequently 
find a difficulty in determining when they have a sentence, or in deciding' 
how to divide their thoughts into sentences. This difficulty must be over- 
come mainly by skill in grammar and composition. A proposition (see 
p. 5) can not be partly in one sentence and partly in another ; and modify- 
ing words or phrases should remain with the parts which they modify. 
Propositions closely bound together in sense, should make but one sen- 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

fence; but propositions loosely connected may often be either gathered 
into one sentence or divided into two or more sentences. 

Examples. — When an example consists of a proposition, or of some- 
thing used in the sense of a proposition, it should begin with a capital let- 
ter. But when words or phrases, used for illustration, occur in the body 
of a sentence, they need not begin with capitals if the meaning is suffi- 
ciently obvious without them; though usage is divided in regard to such 
expressions, and capitals sometimes "distinguish the parts better than small 
letters. 

Verse. — When verse is written in the form of prose, it should gener- 
ally have only the capitals which are suitable to prose. 

Words of Distinction. — The Indian always says, " Great Spirit," or 
uses both words to denote God ; but when Pope wrote, " Thou great First 
Cause," he used great in its ordinary descriptive sense. The King of 
Icings shows pre-eminently God's relation to worldly kings; but the Angel 
of Death does not show the relation of any angel to death. The Devil de- 
notes Satan ; but a devil may be simply a bad person or spirit. When the 
words god, goddess, deity, divinity, etc., are applied to the heathen deities, 
they do not begin with capitals. When Muses, Graces, Naiads, etc., are 
regarded in the splendor of ancient imagination, they are generally fa- 
vored with capitals ; but our own fairies, sylphs, ghosts, hobgoblins, etc.^ are 
rather too puny and undignified in idea to be thus distinguished. 

The names of important individual objects, as spring, summery autumn, 
winter, time, eternity, space, seasons, morning, evening, day, night, earth, 
heaven, hell, sun, moon, world, universe, nature, equator, zodiac, north, east, 
etc., when used in their most ordinary sense, or when their ordinary mean- 
ing predominates, do not usually begin with capitals ; but when they are 
used in a specific or personified sense, they should begin with capitals. 
When Heaven denotes God, it should always begin with a capital letter; 
and when it denotes the abode of the blessed, it is also frequently written 
with a capital. 

Lord's Day is equivalent to Sunday. New Year's Day, the Fourth of 
July, Good Friday, or any Other holiday, is as much a particular day as 
Sunday, or any other day of the week. The phrases Elegy in a Country 
Churchyard, Battle of Hoherdinden, The Task, are as much the names of 
particular poems as John, James, and Henry, are the names of particular 
boys. " Gray took hardly more pains with his Elegy/' not elegy. The 
gospel denotes the Christian doctrines ; but the Gospels and the Revelation 
denote parts of the New Testament. A Methodist, a Republican, a Mussul- 
man, or a Roarer, belongs to some religious, political, or social sect or 
parry. "The President sent the document to Congress ; and the Senate 
returned it to the General Assembly, or Legislature, of New York." 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 63 

Ilcnce, the names of holidays, the names of the days of the week or 
months of the year, the chief words in the titles of books, the names of 
sects, parties, associations, or public bodies, should begin with capital 
letters. 

Should the word park be constantly applied to a particular place in 
stead of a proper name, then the place should be called the Park, not the 
park. If I should use the phrase Old Dominion for the proper name Vir- 
ginia, I would begin each word of the phrase with a capital letter; but if 
I should call Goldsmith's Deserted Village Goldsmith's great poem, I would 
not begin the latter words with capitals. We must often judge whether 
the specific or titular sense, or else the ordinary meaning of the words, is 
uppermost in the speaker's mind, and use capitals or small letters accord- 
ingly. Webster's Speeches refers to a book, or to their title ; while Web- 
ster's speeches refers simply to the speeches as such. " I went with him to 
visit the Lakes ; " i. <?., a celebrated group of lakes. We can see'white 
mountains in almost any mountainous country; but the White Mountains 
are in New Hampshire. A Cambridge Professor speaks of his Essay, in 
referring to a book called Cambridge Essays; and, having introduced Cap- 
tain Marryatt, he afterwards speaks of him as the Captain, not as the cap- 
tain. When I speak of the principal of a school, I refer to his duties; 
but when I speak of the Principal of a school, I refer to his title. A chap- 
ter in your history refers to your life ; but a chapter in your History refers 
to a book so named. "Part 1, Remark, Observations, Rules for Spell- 
ing," refer to certain divisions or headings of a book. Our Club, Presi- 
dent, Treasurer, and Secretary, are such in title as well as in fact. The 
London Times says, " Her Majesty, the Prince Consort, the Bride, the 
Prince of Wales, and the other members of the Royal Family, were pres- 
ent." Common folks would not have been thus honored with capitals. 
An astronomer writes, u The Sun is the centre of the System;" because 
these capitalized words denote subjects of which he treats. 

When I speak of the Company or the Convention, I mean to guard you 
against thinking of the wrong one, or to make you think of a particular 
one. Missouri is a part of the South, though it lies west. If the North, 
East, South, and West, make the United States, then any one of these 
states is a State, being derived from a proper noun. We may speak, how- 
ever, in general terms, of the states, kingdoms, and empires of the # earth. 
The Insurrection was printed with a capital letter only while the excitement 
lasted ; but the Reformation and the Revolution are still matters of interest, 
and retain their capitals. 

Hence, the names of great events, of important places, or of persons in 
high official positions, even when they consist of common words of the 
language, should generally begin with capitals. 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

When a term consists of two or more words, and especially if they are 
linked together in the sense of apposition, it is sometimes difficult to de- 
termine how many capitals should be u>ed. In such cases we should care- 
fully consider how much makes the name, or whether the parts are sepa- 
rately significant. The Ohio river is as well denoted by the Ohio, which is 
a sufficient name to call it by, and which implies the word river; but the 
Red River is not usually called the Red, nor is the Blue Ridge ever called 
the Elite, for it takes both words to make the name. The city of New 
York, or New York city, is generally called New York; but Jersey City 
needs both words to make the name. The Erie Canal is wholly a name; 
but the Erie and Ohio canal is understood as being simply the canal be. 
tween Lake Erie and the Ohio river. In the phrase, "the prophet Jonah, 11 
the words arc separately significant, or but temporarily united; but in the 
terms Lake Erie, Mount Vernon, Cape IJatteras, Penobscot Bay, Queen Eliz- 
abeth f Loch Gyle, Ben Lomond, both words are so commonly used as the 
name, that each begins with a capital letter. " Victoria, the queen of Great 
Britain ; " " Mary, Queen of Scots : " the former phrase is explanatory, 
but the latter is also titular. In this country, Esq. is always used as a 
title, and therefore it properly begins with a capital letter; but, in Eng- 
land, esq. is often used merely as a term of rank, and therefore in English 
journals we often find it beginning with a small e. Harper's ferry was 
once a ferry belonging to a man named Harper; but now Harper's Ferry 
is a town. 

When objects are very common and comparatively insignificant, we 
often find that only the specific words, and not the general words, — espe- 
cially when the latter are plural, — begin with capital letters; as, "in 
Cass and .Butler counties." The^words county, township, hill, creek, river, 
when used in connection with specific words, are not generally commenced 
with capital letters. Street we find written — Fifth Street, Eifth and Mad- 
ison Streets; Fifth-s/ree£, Walnut-street, Eifth and Walnut streets (the hy- 
phen being omitted from the plural phrase, to show the common reference 
of streets to the two words before it) ; and, lastly, Fifth street. The first 
two modes are best authorized. The same remark applies occasionally to 
the words place, square, house, church, etc. But, in all cases in which the spe- 
cific word is also a common word of the language, the tendency is, to begin 
the general word with a capital letter too , as, " Black* Sea" "Long 7s/- 
and, ,f> " White River." The English, in many cases, compound some 
kinds of the foregoing terms ; as, u Spring-gardens, Leceister -place, Hamp- 
den-street, Arklow-house." Only the first part of a compound word is usu- 
ally commenced with a capital letter, as in the foregoing terms; but when 
the term has a titular sense, each part is more generally commenced with 
a capital, as " Attorney- General." 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 65 

Personification. — A word denoting a personified object is commenced 
with a capital, only when it has strictly the sense of a proper noun that is 
applied to a person; as, "And Hope enchanting smiled, and waved her 
golden hair." But, " The ship lost her cargo." " ' Will you walk into 
my parlor 1 ' said the Spicier to the Fly," represents the spider and the fly' 
as if they were Mr. A and Mr. B. 

Derivatives. — The word Christian, though it has become a common 
word of the language, begins with a capital on account of its highly hon- 
orable derivation. The word Italic, applied to letters, is often commenced 
with a small i; but the analogy of the word Roman rather tends to sus- 
tain the capital I. 

After all, in regard to capital letters, something must be left to taste, or 
to the nice intuitive perceptions of the writer. 

Syllables. — Formerly, words were divided into syllables according to 
their derivation and vowels ; as, or-tho-gra-phy, ha-bit: but now the highest 
rule is, to divide them as they are pronounced ; as, or-thog-ra-phy, hab-it. 
In dividing words into syllables, we should endeavor, first, to show the ex- 
act pronunciation ; secondly, to make neat syllables ; and, thirdly, to show 
the derivation of the words. Quite a number of words are still variously 
and sometimes inconsistently divided in our best dictionaries. The follow- 
ing additional rules may be useful to the learner. 

Vowels. — Diphthongs and triphthongs, not severed ; as, loy-al, buoy-ant: 
vowels making different syllables, separated ; as, a-e-ri-al, co-op-e-rate : vowels 
changed to consonants, to their own syllables ; as, un-ion, liq-uid, brill-iant. 

Consonants. — Single consonant between two vowels, and not shortening 
the former nor sounded with it, to the latter syllable ; as, re-beV, ha-zy, easy : 
shortening the former vowel or joined to it, to the former syllable ; as, reb'-el, 
heav-y, fraud-u-lent : mute and liquid, not shortening the syllable preceding, 
joined to the latter; as, pa-trol: shortening it, separated; as, cit-ron: liquid 
and mute, blending with former vowel, joined to it ; as, post-age : not both 
blending with former vowel, separated; as, dan-ger, pas-tor: two consonants, 
in other cases, generally separated ; as, sup-per, mem-ber, mos-sy, collec-tive, 
pic-ture, pic-kle, etc. Ch, sh, th, gh, ph, wh, and tch, are regarded as single 
letters ; and tion, sion, cious, tient, etc., as single syllables. 

Spelling. — The spelling of the English language, several hundred 
years ago, was much more clumsy and variable than it now is. It was 
spelled it, itt, yt, ytt, hit, hitt, hyt, or hytt; when, whanne or whan ; company, 
compagnie; truly, treulyche; earth, eorthe ; hands, hondes ; unkind, unkuynde; 
should, scholden ; which, quhiche and whiche ; since, syghthen ; gathered, y-gad- 
ered. In the course of time there was introduced a Rule to double the con- 
sonant, whenever the vowel before it was short; and to leave it single, 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

when the vowel was long. Accordingly, we find hadde, thanne, starre, etc., 
for had, than, star. The effect of this rule can still be seen in such words 
as mill) less, cliff; and our existing rule for doubling the final consonant in 
certain cases, is probably an offshoot from the same rule. 

Formerly, parlor, labor, vapor, etc., were spelled parlour, labour, vapour ; 
but the superfluous u is now rejected. Formerly, public, music, arithmetic, 
etc., were spoiled public^, mufick, arithmetick ; but the superfluous k is now 
omitted from nearly all such words except monosyllables. A few verbs 
of two or more syllables retain or assume the k for the sake of the pro- 
nunciation ; as, traffic, mimic, mimicked, mimicking, not mimicing. 

Some words can be spelled in two or more different ways, with good 
authority for each ; as, keg and cag ; plough and plow ; inquire and enquire ; 
traveler and traveller ; hominy, homony, and hommony. But this diversity is 
now confined to a comparatively small number of words ; and the better 
forms of these words will probably soon exterminate the other forms. 
Generally speaking, the spelling of the English language is so irregular 
that it is safer and better to learn the words themselves than to depend 
upon rules. 

Derivation. — The English language is a composite, derived from a 
number of other languages. Hence it is full of conflicting analogies. 
The chief languages from which it has been formed, are, in the order of 
time, about as follows .: — / 

/ <>Zs c/ *£ a & 

Celtic, Saxon,. Danish, French, Latin, and Greek. 

Its groundwork, its syntax and idiomatic pith, are essentially Saxon. 
Nearly all the most common words, as earth, heaven, water, fire, wind, wood, 
grass, man, boy. ox, cow, sheep, hen, goose, house, mouse, rat, hand, heart, soul, 
love, hate, grief, sorrow, rye, car, hair, arm, fist, finger, breast, foot, day, night, 
morning, evening, month, year, summer, winter, word, way, speak, say, whisper, 
smile, laugh, weep, walk, wash, watch, lie, stand, run, dance, creep, fly, come, 
go, have, hold, good, bad, long, short, near, far, deep, wide, old, young, thin, 
thick, sour, bitter, sweet, I, my, you, he, she, it, who, which, that, this, so, as, thus, 
here, there, where, ever, never, in, on, under, up, to, from, with, by, and, both, 
for, if, since, then, than, or, but, etc., are Saxon. The other languages 
which have contributed most words, are the French and the Latin. The 
French has furnished most of the words pertaining to refinement and 
fashion. The Latin and the Greek have furnished most of the terms re- 
quired in the great circle of sciences and arts. From the Latin duco, due- 
turn, to lead ; capio, captum, to take ; few, latum, to carry ; mitto, missum, to 
send; tendo, tensum, to stretch ; teneo, tentum, to hold ; plico, plicatum, to fold; 
pono, positum, to place ; specio, spectum, to look ; and from the Greek logos, 
discourse ; and graphe, writing, — are derived about 2,000 English words. 



■A 



?4 



1 H 3 * 

>\^K| etymology. f\i 6T 

It is said that the English language has about 100,000 words, and that 
about 13,000 of these are derived from 154 Latin and Greek primitives. 
That spirited, that glorious little poem, Campbell's Hohenlinden, con- 
tains 198 words. Of these, 170 are Saxon; 19, French; and 9, Latin; 
making about 86 per cent of Saxon words. Probably no other specimen 
of English literature shows so well the simplicity and force of the Saxon 
element, and what preference should be given to Saxon words in our daily 
use of language. 

A word can sometimes be traced through a number of languages. The 
Greek aner, the Latin vir, the German Herr, the French sieur, and the 
English sir, are all of them essentially the same word. 

Words, like people, exist in families and kindreds. Act, actor, action, 
^Vk ac ^ ve i activity, actuate, actual, actually, etc., are a family; and hide, hat, 
hood, hut, and house, are all akin. So are bind, band, and bond; rest and 
roost; scale, shell, and skull; and draw, dray, draggle, drawl, dray, dredge, 
J drudge, drain, train, and draft. 

\ Words have been called fossil poetry ; and it is sometimes very inter- 
\ esting to trace them to their originals and kindreds. An acorn is an oak- 
corn ; a berry is what a bush bears ; a daisy is a dafs-eye ; clover is some- 
thing that has cloven leaves ; a field is a place where the trees are felled; a 
^yard is a piece of ground that girds a house; what is wild, is se\f-willed r 
or follows its own will; a landscape is a land-shape; fodder is food for feed- 
% X* n 9 cattle ; an ore is taken from the earth ; heaven is what is heaved (heav- 
jen, giv-en) or arched over; a hamlet is a dear little home^ and a satchel is a 
small sack; a neighbor is one who lives nigh; what I ought to do, is owed 
by me as a duty; & nostril is a nose-drill, or nose-hole; a husband is the 
^house-band, or support; a man's wife once was the weaver of his house- 
A hold ; a month is measured by the moon ; he who is tantalized is treated or 
%^ mocked like Tantalus ; a meandering river is as crooked as the Meander, a 
river of Phrygia ; umbra is the Latin word for shade, and an umbrella is 
therefore a little shade; a parasol — from the Greek para, against, and the 
Latin sol, sun* — is something held against the sun ; a mansion — from the 
Latin maneo, mansum, to remain — is a place to remain in; the first clock 
seemed to cluck, like a hen ; and a flea is probably so called from the ra- 
pidity with which he flees, or tries to escape. 

/// is contracted from evil, and ail is akin to it ; dawn, from day-en (day- 
ing), making day ; deed, from do-ed, done, what is done; first, from fore- 
est, for'st; last, from latest; lass, from laddess ; alone, from all one ; only, 
from one-like; flood, from flowed; fulsome, from foul-some; parboil, from 
part-boil ; Naples from nea polis, new city ; offal is what falls off, or is cast 
away ; and what I doff, I do off. 

King Henry the Eighth, of England, became " the chiefe aurhour " of 
* Perhaps rather from the Iialian parare, to ward off, and sole, sun. 
4 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

an English grammar, for " the childrene of his lovynge subjects," which 
he compelled the people to use ; and thus originated the common phrase, 
the Kiny*s English. The Irishman may claim that his nickname has de- 
scended from " the senators of Rome, in Rome's best day." Thus, pater, 
patres, patricians, Patricius, Patrick, Paddy, Pat. 

Many words, applied first to material things, have been extended to 
things intellectual or abstract. " The spirit in its literal import is breath 
or wind, rectitude is straightness, error is a wandering, transgression is a going- 
over, education is a drawing-out, a language is a tongue ; " and we speak of 
" bright hopes, unshaken confidence, and corroding cares." 

The two principles which guide us most in the use and formation of 
words, are resemblance and relation. The leaf of a book resembles the leaf 
of a plant ; and the key to an arithmetic serves to unlock its mysteries. 
Buzz, hiss, hum, roll, roar, rattle, clatter, clicks clang, thin, burly, are all imita- 
tive. Some letter combinations are eminently suggestive of the meaning. 
There is something decidedly nasal in the sn that begins sneeze, sneer, snout, 
snore, snort, snuff, snuffle, and snicker. Spr or sp implies expansion or un- 
folding ; as in spread, sprawl, sprinkle, sprout, and spring. St implies firm- 
ness ; as in stout, stand, stool, stump, stay, stiff, strut, strong, and stack. A 
sceptre indicates royalty ; a sword, sl soldier, or war ; a sail, a ship ; and a 
head, the ox that wears it. 

There are many beautiful analogies in derivation, of which the follow- 
ing are specimens : — 

Crack, crackle ; crumb, crumble ; curd, curdle ; fond, fondle ; game, gam* 
ble; grim or grum, grumble; nest, nestle; rank, rankle; roam, ramble; 
rough, ruffle; set, settle; shove, shovel, shuffle; spark, sparkle; stray, strag- 
gle ; stride, straddle ; throat, throttle ; wade, waddle ; wink, twinkle ; writhe, 
wriggle. 

Bind, bundle; gird, girdle; hand, handle; fade, ladle; seat, saddle ; shoot, 
shuttle; spin, spindle; steep, steeple; thumb, thimble. 

Beat, batter; spit, sputter, spatter; pest, pester; blow, bluster; climb, 
clamber; gleam, glimmer; shine, shimmer; gloss, glisten; wend, wander ; 
long, linger; hang, hanker; whine, whimper. 

(The foregoing examples show that a derivative word is sometimes a 
diminutive, a. frequentative, or an augmentative of its primitive; that is, it 
may imply a lessening, a frequency, or an increase, in regard to the mean- 
ing of the primitive. And then, generally speaking, the stronger the 
sound, the stronger the meaning.) 

Joined, joint ; feigned, feint ; waned, want; weighed, weight; cleaved, 
cleft; thieved, theft; drived, drift; gived, gift; waved, waft; deserved, de- 
sert ; haved, haft; held, hilt; skim, scum; deem, doom. 

Healeth, health; stealeth, stealth; groweth, growth ; breweth, broth ; gird- 



ETYMOLOGY. *69 

eth, girth; smiteth, smith, ("The smith that smiteth at the fire/'— Verste- 
gan.) 

Deep, depth ; long, length ; strong, strength ; young, youth ; merry, mirth ; 
wide, width ; slow, sloth. 

Bake, batch ; wake, watch ; make, match ; break, breach ; speak, speech ; 
seek, beseech ; stick, stitch ; nick, niche, notch ; drink, drench ; crook, crouch ; 
stark, starch. 

There is often a shortening in spelling or pronunciation : — 

Grain, granary; cave, cavity; maintam, maintenance, please, pleasant; 
zeal, zealous; sheep, shepherd; feet, fetlock ; hind, h inder ; spleen, splen- 
etic; prime, primer; crime, criminal; goose, g&sling ; sour, surly; boor, 
burly; south, southern. 

The changes which words undergo, are such as tend to produce greater 
musical variety. There is ever a tendency, too, in derivation, to hold to 
some fundamental parts or analogies* Hence the Saxon prefix ge has in 
some of our words run into a, as in arise and awake ; and the Saxon hf- 
ladu, life-leading, has become livelihood. People are thus sometimes mis- 
led. Asparagus is often improperly called sparrow-grass ; and we often 
hear the improper forms preventative, maintainance, propositi/ y and moun- 
tain'tous, for the words preventive, maintenance, proposal t and mountainous. 

Language not only exists, but lives, grows, and decays. It is not a 
dead mechanism, but a living organism. Words, and modes of ex- 
pression, are constantly coming into use ; others, passing out of use; and 
others, assuming new burdens of meaning, and probably losing the old. 
An old writer speaks of a "polite surface" (polished surface), and of "re- 
senting a favor" (re-fteUng it, or reflecting upon it with gratitude). Our 
expressive words bulk, dose, opiate, ponderous^ caress, thrill, grisly, tissue, 
and plumage, were all denounced, at different times, either as being new- 
fangled or as being obsolete. 

Words become respectable or otherwise, according to the use made of 
them ; but it is remarkable that they nearly always pass from good mean- 
ings to bad ones, and very seldom the other way. The word knave once 
denoted simply a lad ; but as lads frequently became pages, attendants, 
or servants to persons of consequence, the word was gradually applied to 
attendants or servants ; and as these were sometimes dishonest or not 
deemed respectable, the word gradually acquired its present meaning. 
The good, substantial gentlewomen of the olden times have been superseded 
by those who are all flattered, by the gentlemen, into ladies (wives or 
daughters of lords) ; and yet even this word will soon cease to be respect- 
able if it should be frequently applied as in the following instance : 
" Stolen by a lady, from a little girl, a cashmere shawl," etc., etc. — News- 
paper Advertisement. 



PART III. 



WORDS G-HJ^M.lVLJkJTlC^L.JUXu'^r COMBINED. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 

ETYMOLOGY ^JNTD SYNTAX. 

157, A Part of Speech is a class of words, made 
according to their use and meaning in sentences. 

By synecdoche, the term part of speech is often applied to a single word. 

158. The English language has nine Parts of Speech ; 
Nouns, Pronouns, Articles, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs, 
Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections. 

The nouns, pronouns, and verbs, are the chief classes ; and next to 
them rank the adjectives and the adverbs. These five classes have, 
to some extent, what are called inflections ; that is, they are some- 
times changed in form to express a modification in the idea. 



Nouns. jP r °P er - 

( (common ; 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS* 

Classification. 

Masculine, 
Feminine, 
Common, 
Neuter. 



including 

Collective, 

Abstract, 

Verbal. 



Properties, 



Pro- 
nouns. 



' Personal, 
Relative, 
Interrogative, 
Adjective. 



Gender. 



f First, 
Person. \ Second, 
[ Third. 

*«—■'{ IK"* 



Case. 



{Nominative, 
Possessive, 
Objective. 



* Nouns and Pronouns are sometimes called Substantives. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 71 

NOUNS. 

159. A Noun is a name. 

Ex. — Martha, Columbus, river, wind, farm, farmer. 

160. Sometimes a phrase is used as a noun. 

Ex. — New York; Sir Walter Scott; Henry the Eighth; Duke 
of Marlborough. " Toward the earth's centre is down." 

161 • Sometimes a clause is used as a noun. 

Ex. — " That the war must soon end, is plain." (What is plain ?) 
" I will see whether the fire is burning." (See what ?) " It is certain 
that he will go" (What is certain ?) 

162, Sometimes a word from another part of speech, 
or a mere sign, is used as a noun. 

Ex. — " The proudest she in Christendom." — Shakespeare. " The* 
vjhy is plain as way to parish church." — Id. " The signs -f-> — , X* 
and -r-." — Robinson. 

CLASSES OF NOUNS. 

... 
163* Nouns are divided into two classes, — proper and 

common ; and the common nouns include, as a part of 

their number, collective nouns, abstract nouns, and verbal 

nouns. 

164. A Proper Noun is a name that distinguishes a 
particular one from the rest of a class. 

Ex. — Mary, Henry, Boston, Connecticut; the Iliad. 
Mary is a proper noun, because it is a name that distinguishes a 
particular girl or woman from others. 

165. When a proper noun assumes meaning, or implies 
other objects that have the same name, it becomes a com- 
mon noun. 

Ex. — " Bolivar was the Washington of South America." (Great 
general and patriot.) " Some mute, inglorious Milton here may 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

rest." (Great poet.) "I saw the Russians, and also a Turk and 
several Persians, at the Astor House." 

Plural nouns that begin with capital letters, and distinguish 
groups as singular proper nouns distinguish individuals, should be 
considered proper nouns. Hence " the Azores," " the Cherokees," 
"the Messrs. Harris" denoting each the whole of a group, are 
proper nouns. 

166. A Common Noun is a name common to all of 
the same kind or class. 

Ex. — Girl, boy, city, river, mountain, man, horse. 
Girl is a common noun, because it is a name that is common, or 
can be applied, to any one of a certain class of females. 

167. When a common noun denotes an object in the 
sense of a proper noun, it becomes a proper noun. 

* Ex. — The Common; Niagara Falls. "Come, gentle Spring" 

Sometimes there is no class, or but one object to be denoted by a 
proper noun or a common noun. When this is the case, the proper 
noun simply denotes the object ; as, God: while the common noun 
denotes the object, and also shows what it is ; as, earth, ski/, truth. 

168. A Collective Noun is a name that denotes, in 
the singular form, more than one object of the same kind. 

fix. — Family, army, swarm, class, congregation. 

189. An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality, a 
state, or an action. 

Abstract means drawn from. The words goodness, virtue, hope, 
wisdom, motion, rest, peace, and industry, are abstract nouns ; because 
they are not the names of objects that exist by themselves, but the 
names of qualities, actions, or states, belonging to objects, or of 
notions that we form in regard to them. 

170. A Verbal Noun is a participle or an infinitive 
used as a noun. Verbal nouns belong to abstract nouns. 

Ex. — " To climb is generally difficult." " The boy hurt himself 
by climbing a tree." (The teacher should give the pupil some idea 
of what a participle or an infinitive is.) 

A participle, used as a noun, is sometimes called a participial noun. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 73 

A noun, and why ; whether proper, common, or collective, and why : — 
Boy, George, day, Saturday, month, September, flock, tribe, 

holiday, Christmas, island, Cuba, nations, city, Boston, people, 

multitude, river, Hudson, party, Azores, ashes. 

PRONOUNS. 

171. A Frenoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 
Ex. — " The father and his son cultivated the farm which | they 

had purchased" ; i. e.,- The father and the father's son cultivated the 
farm which farm \ the father and the father's son had purchased. 

172. Pronouns enable us to avoid clumsy expressions, 
and especially the disagreeable repetition of nouns. 

173. The word, phrase, or clause, which a pronoun 
represents, is called its antecedent. 

Ex. — " James saw his mistake." James is the antecedent of Ms. 
" He who is well, undervalues health." He is the antecedent of who. 
"I wished to call him back ; but it was impossible." " He sold his 
farm ; and now he regrets it." Sometimes the antecedent follows 
the pronoun ; as, " And there her brood the partridge led." — Bryant. 

174. When a pronoun has a modified antecedent, it 
represents it with all its modifications. 

Ex. — " The largest tree of the grove spread its shade over us." 
Here its represents not tree merely, hut the largest tree of the grove. 

175. The antecedent of a pronoun is sometimes omitted. 
Ex. — " There are, who, deaf to mad Ambition's call, 

Would shrink to hear the obstreperous trump of fame." — 
Supply those, or those persons, after are. \Beattie. 

176. The pronoun is sometimes omitted. 
Ex. — " The lamb thy riot dooms to bleed to-day, 

Had he thy reason, would he skip and play ? " — Pope. 
Supply which after lamb. 

CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 

177. Pronouns may be divided into four classes ; per- 
sonal, relative, interrogative, and adjective. 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Personal Pronouns. 
178. A Personal Pronoun is one of those pronouns 
which distinguish the grammatical persons. 

Ex. — " / saw you and him." I means the speaker ; you, the per- 
son spoken to ; and him, the person spoken of. 

119. The chief personal pronouns are I, thou or you, 
he, she, and it. 

For their declined forms and their compounds, see p. 103. 

180. You, your, yours, and yourself, are now pre- 
ferred in common usage to thou, thy, thine, thee, etc. 

181. Thou, thy, thine, thee, thyself, and ye, are ancient 
and solemn forms. Hence they are still used, — 

1. In the Bible. 

Ex. — " Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbor." 

2. In prayers or other addresses to the Deity. 

Ex. — " Thou Almighty Ruler, hallowed be thy name ! " — Prayer. 

3. Frequently, in poetry. 

Ex. — " Thou art not false, but thou art fickle." — Byron. 

182. Ours, yours, hers, theirs, and generally mine and 
thine, are respectively equivalent to our, your, her, etc., 
and the name of the object possessed. These two words 
should be parsed in stead of the other word. 

Ex. — "He ate his apple, you ate yours [your apple], and I ate 
mine" [my apple]. Yours is not governed by a noun understood, for 
the noun could not be put after it ; but it is equivalent to your and a 
noun. — See p. 103. 

183. Before vowel sounds or the letter h, mine and 
thine are sometimes preferred, in the solemn or poetic 
style, to my and thy. 

Ex. — " All mine iniquities." — Bible. " Thine altar." — Whittier. 

" Time writes no wrinkles on thine azure brow." — Byron. 
So, formerly, none to no. " Thou shalt have none other gods before me." — Bible. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 75 

184. It sometimes denotes merely the state or condi- 
tion of things, or. a point of time. 

Ex. — It rains. It thunders. It is 12 o'clock. 

" 'T was moonlight on the Persian Sea." — Moore. 

185. It sometimes introduces a sentence, and is ex- 
plained by a following word, phrase, or clause. 

Ex. — It is he. It is she. It was they. It is mean to take advan- 
wje of another's distress. It is perfectly plain that a straight line must 
be the shortest distance between two points. 

It, in all the foregoing examples, has no antecedent 

186. A Compound Personal Pronoun is a word 

consisting, in the singular number, of my, thy, your, 
him, her, or it, compounded with self ; in the plural, of 
our, your, or them, compounded with selves. 

Ex. — Myself, yourself, himself; ourselves, yourselves, themselves, 

187. These pronouns are used in two senses : — 

1. For emphatic distinction. 

Ex. — " He himself said so " ; i. e., no other person said so. 

2. In a reflexive sense. 

Ex. — " He hurt himself" " Said I to myself I am myself again. 5 * 
That is, the act or state of the person terminates upon himself. 

Relative Pronouns. 

188. A Relative Pronoun is a pronoun that gener- 
ally stands in close relation to an antecedent, and joins 
to it a descriptive clause. 

Ex. — " The fur which warms the monarch, warmed a bear" 
" Too low they build, who build beneath the stars." — Young. 
" Spirit that breathest through my lattice." — Bryant. 
Which means the fur •, and which warms the monarch tells what fur. 
Who relates to they ,• and its clause describes the persons meant by they. 

189. The relative pronouns are who, which, what, that, 
rind as, with their declined forms and their compounds* 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

190. Who is applied to persons, and to other objects 
when regarded as persons. 

Ex. — " The man who feels truly noble, will become so." — Chapin. 
"Now a faint tick was heard below, from the Pendulum, who 
thus spoke." — Jane Taylor. 

W. " The son of Esrom, which was the son of Seth."' — Bible. 

191 • Which is applied to things, and to all animals 
inferior to man. 

Ex. — The rose which ; the horse which ; the army which. 

W. The lion who had killed the man, was shot the next day. 

A group of persons regarded as one whole, and denoted by a col- 
lective noun, becomes a thing, and who should not be applied to it ; 
as, " He instructed and fed the crowds which [not who'] surrounded him." 

192. What is used in place of thing which or things 
which, and it has therefore no antecedent. 
Ex. — "I will take what [the things which] you send." 

193* That is preferred to who and which in the fol- 
lowing instances : — 

1. When the antecedent denotes both persons and 
other objects. 

Ex. — The ship and passengers that were lost at sea. 
W. Was it the wind, or you, who shut the door ? 

2. Generally when a more specific or restrictive rela- 
tive than who or which is needed. 

Ex. — "In thoughts that breathe, and words that burn." — Gray. 
" Riches that are ill got, are seldom enjoyed." — Johnson. That is, 
not all riches, but only those which are ill got. 

W. Adjectives which express number are called numerals. 
8. After the superlative degree, when the sense is re- 
strictive. 

Ex. — This is the hardest lesson that we have yet had. 
W. I was the first one who came to school this morning. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 77 

4. After who, used as an antecedent. 
Ex. — Who that respects himself, would tell a lie ? 

5. After same. 

Ex. — It is the same star that we saw last night. 

W. These are the same sums which we had yesterday. 

6. Generally, after no, all, any, each, every, some, or, 
very. 

Ex. — " And all that beauty, all that wealth, e'er gave." — Gray. 
W. No man who knows him, would trust him. 

7. Frequently, after personal pronouns, or after predi- 
cate-nominatives referring to it. 

Ex. — " Fall he that must." — P§pc. But, " His praise is lost who 
waits till all commend." — Id. " It is not grief that bids me moan." 

8. Generally, where who or which would seem less 

proper. 

Ex. — " A little child that lightly draws its breath." — Wordsworth. 
14 A woman who had a daughter that was very beautiful." " A 
woman that had a daughter who was very beautiful." 

194. The relative that does not allow a preposition to stand 
immediately before it ; and hence whom or winch must be used 
after a preposition, or the arrangement of the words must be 
varied. 

Ex. — " He is the same man with whom I came " ; or, " He is the 
same man that I came with." 

195. Which and that have no possessive form of their own ; 
and hence they sometimes borrow whose, the possessive of who. 

Ex. — " The undiscovered country, from ivhose bourn [from the 
boundary oficldcli] no traveler returns." — Shakespeare. 

196» As is a relative pronoun when it follows such, 
many, or same, and relates to the objects thus specified. 

Ex. — He has such friends as every one should wish to have. 
As is also generally a relative pronoun after as much. 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

197* A Compound Relative Pronoun is who, which, 
or what, with ever or soever annexed to it. 
Ex. — I will take whatever you send. 

A compound relative pronoun is generally a little more em- 
phatic or comprehensive than the simple one ; and it dispenses 
with the antecedent when this is indefinite. 

The indefinite ever or soever partly represents the antecedent, by 
being a sort of substitute for the indefinite adjective before it ; and 
hence, when the antecedent is expressed or supplied, the ever or so- 
ever must generally be omitted. 

Ex. — " Whoever [he who] cares not for others, should not expect 
their favors." — " The Gaul offered his own head to whoever [any per- 
son who~] would bring him that of Nero." — Gibbon. 

Interrogative Pronouns. 

198. An Interrogative Pronoun is a pronoun used 
to ask a question. 

Ex. — Who came with you ? Which is he ? 

Interrogative pronouns have no antecedents; but the noun or 
pronoun which is given in answer to the interrogative pronoun, is 
sometimes called the subsequent ; as, " Who came with you ? — John." 

"An interrogative pronoun is a relative in search of an antecedent." — Phil. Museum. 

199. The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and 
what, with their declined forms. 

All these pronouns can be applied to either persons or things, 
except who, which is applicable to persons only. 

200. Who inquires for the name of a person; but, 
when the name is given, for some description. 

Ex. — " Who is he ? " — Wirt. " Who was Blennerhasset ? " — Id. 

201. Which generally supposes the name known ; and 
it is applied to persons or things, in asking for a particular 
one of two or more. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 79 

Ex. — " Which is Shylock ? " — Shakespeare. " Which is yours ? " 
In this sense, whether was formerly used in asking for one of two ; as, 

M Whether of the twain ? M — Spenser. " Whether is greater, the gold or the 

temple 1" — Bible. 

202. What asks for the kind of thing; and hence, 
sometimes, for the character or occupation. 

Ex. —r " TFAatf can ennoble sots, or slaves, or cowards ? 

Alas ! not all the blood of all the Howards." — Pope. 
" What art thou ? " — Milton. " What is he ? " 

203. An interrogative pronoun is sometimes used in a re- 
sponsive sense ; and it may then be called a responsive pro- 
noun, or an indirect interrogative pronoun. 

" Who is he ? — I know not ivho he is." 

" Which is it ? — I can not tell which it is." 

" What is truth ? " " Tell me what truth is." — See p. 222. 

Observe the difference : "Who went?" (What person.) Inter- 
rogative pronoun. "I do not know who went." (What person.) 
Eesponsive pronoun. " I do not know the person who went." Eela- 
tive pronoun. 

Adjective Pronouns. 

204 • An Adjective Pronoun is a common specify- 
ing adjective used as a pronoun. 

Common specifying adjectives are such as this, that, each, any, some, such, all, etc. 
Ex. — " The new ones [edifices'] are larger." — Addison. 
u Such men as one \_a person] sometimes meets with." — Taylor. 
u By others' faults, wise men correct their own." — Proverb. 
"Where cither's fall determines both their fates." — Goldsmith. 
"It was the latter, not the farmer, that was in danger." — Benton. 
" The age of chivalry is gone ; that [the age] of," etc. — Burke. 
" Virtue and vice are before you ; this leads to misery, that to peace." 
4 Some put the bliss in action, some in ease : 

Those call it pleasure ; and contentment, these." — Pope. 
" They deemed each other oracles of law." — Pope. 
" Husbands and wives are continually complaining of each other." ~ 
"Bear ye one another's burdens." — Bible. [Johnson. 

Adjective pronouns frequently have no antecedents. 



80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

205. Adjective pronouns may be divided into four 
classes ; distributive, demon! strative, indefinite, and recip- 
rocal. 

206. The distributive pronouns are each, either, and 
neither. They relate to objects taken singly. 

Every, used as a pronoun, is nearly obsolete. 

2©7« The demonstrative pronouns are this, these, that, 
those, same, former, and latter. They point out objects 
definitely. 

2©8« The indefinite pronouns are ont, ones, other, others, 
any, some, such, all, both, and none. They relate to ob- 
jects indefinitely. 
A few other adjectives may occasionally be called indefinite pronouns. 

269. The reciprocal pronouns are each other and one 
another. They imply a reciprocal action or relation. 

Each other and one another can generally be parsed in a different way. — See p. 100. 

21®, Either, neither, and each other, should be used in 
speaking of two only; one another, in speaJdng of more. 
For correct examples, see the preceding page. 
Iff. Either of the eight Professors. (Anyone.) 

The two Smiths are not related to one another. 
Pupils should be polite to each other. — N. Webster. 

211. When this and that are used in speaking of two, 
that should be applied to the more distant, the first-men- 
tioned, or the absent ; this, to the nearer, the last-men- 
tioned, or the present. ■ 

The pronouns, and why ; personal, relative, interrogative, or adjective, and why:'— 

I will go with you arnd him to see them. 

It was the owner himself who killed the dog which bit us. 

Who knows who he is ? Some are lazy, and others stupid. 

" Why is my sleep disquieted ? 

Who is he that calls the dead ? " — Byron. 

That is a relative pronoun when who, whom, or which can be pat in its place, 
without destroying the sense. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 81 

PROPERTIES OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

212. Nouns and Pronouns have gender, person, num* 
her, and case. 

213. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, in 
gender, person, and number. 

Ex. — " John met his mother." His is of the same gender, per- 
son, and number as John. 

W. Every one should attend to their own business. 

GENDER. 

214. Gender is that property of nouns ana pronouns 
which distinguishes objects in regard to sex. 

215. There are four genders; the masculine, the femi- 
nine, the common, and the neuter. 

216. A noun or pronoun is of the masculine gender r 
when it denotes a male. Boy. 

217. A noun or pronoun is of the feminine gender, when 
it denotes a female. Girl. 

218. A noun or pronoun is of the common gender, when 
it denotes either a male or a female. Child. 

219. A noun or pronoun is of the neuter gender, when 
it denotes neither a male nor a female. Book. 

The sex of an object denoted by a word of the common gender 
sometimes becomes more definitely known from some other word, 
and the words should then be parsed accordingly ; as, " The child 
and his mother were in good health." Here child is masculine, as 
shown by his. 

220. For the sake of brevity, nouns that are strictly 
masculine or feminine only, are sometimes applied to both 
sexes. The masculine term is generally preferred. 

Ex. — " Horses are fond of green pastures " ; i. e., horses, and 
mares too. " The Jercs are scattered over the whole world.'' 
" We saw geese and ducks" " The poets of England." 

4* y 



' . 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

But in connection with a proper noun, only the appropriate term 
will harmonize in sense ; as, " The poet Homer." u The poetess 
Sappho." 

221. On the same principle, the masculine pronoun is 
sometimes preferred to the feminine, or used for both. 

Ex. — Every person should try to improve his mind. 
W- " Almost everybody has their faults." — Chapin. 

222. Sometimes animals are regarded as male or female, 
not from their sex, but from their general character. 

Ex. — " The lion meets Ms foe boldly." — Addison. 
" Every ant minds her own business." — Id. 

On the same principle, sex is sometimes disregarded when the 
creature is small, unimportant, or imperfectly known ; as, " The 
child has scorched its frock." " The mouse ran back when it saw me." 
In such cases it would probably be best to parse both the noun and 
the pronoun as being of the common gender. 

223. Things without life are sometimes regarded as persons, 
and have then a suitable sex ascribed to them. Nouns thus 
used are said to be masculine or feminine by personification. 

224. The masculine gender is preferred, if the object 

is noted for size, power, or domineering qualities. 

Ex. — " Lo, steel-clad War Ids gorgeous standard rears ! " — Rogers. 
" The sun seemed shorn of his beams." — Milton. 

225. The feminine gender is preferred, if the object is 
noted for beauty, amiability, productiveness, or submis- 
sive qualities. 

Ex. — " Soon Peace shall come with all her smiling train." 
" Earth, with her thousand voices, praises God." 
" The ship, with her snowy sails and flaunting banner." 

226. When a collective noun is used in the plural 
number, or when it denotes the whole collection as one 
tiling, it is of the neuter gender ; when it is used other- 
wise, its gender corresponds with the sex of the individu- 
als composing the collection. 



NOUNS AND PROSOUKS. 



83 



Ex. — " Six families settled on this river." " Every generation 
has its peculiarities." M The congregation will please to retain their 
seats." 

Personal pronouns of the first or the second person are of 
the common gender, unless the sex becomes more definitely 
known from some other word. 



How Gender is Expressed. 

227. There are three methods of distinguishing the 



two sexes. 










1. By 


different words. 




Masculine. 


Feminine, 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Bachelor, 


maid. 


Man, 


woman. 


Beau, 


belle. 


Master, 


mistress. 


Boy, 


girl. 


Master, 


miss. 


Bridegroom 


j bride, 


Mr., 


Mrs. 


Brother, 


sister. 


Monk, friar, 


nun. 


Buck, 


doe. 


Monsieur, 


madame. 


Bull, 


cow. 


Monsieur, 


mademoiselle. 


Bullock, 

• * 


heifer. 


Nephew, 


niece. 


Colt, 


filly. 


Papa, 


mamma. 


Drake, 


duck. 


Earn, buck, 


ewe. 


Earl, 


countess. 


Rooster, 


hen. 


Father, 


mother. 


Sir, 


madam. 


Gander, 


goose. 


Sire (horse) 


, dam. 


Gentleman, 


lady. 


Sloven, 


slattern. 


Hart, 


roe. 


Son, 


daughter. 


He, 


she. 


Stag, 


hind. 


Horse, 


mare. 


Steer, 


heifer. 


Husband, 


wife. 


Swain, 


nymph. 


King, 


queen. 


Uncle, 


aunt. 


Lad, 


lass. 


Wizard, 


witch. 


Lord, 


lady. 


Youth, 


maiden, damsel. 


Male, 


female. 


Charles, 


Caroline. 



84 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



2. By different endings. 

Most nouns of this class denote rank or occupation ; 
and the feminine generally ends with ess or trix. 

Ex. — Abbot, abbess ; governor, governess. 

Add ess : Baron, count, viscount, dauphin, deacon, diviner, 
giant, god (see p. 50), heir, hermit, host, Jew, lion, mayor, 
patron, peer, poet, priest, prince (see p. 51), prior, prophet, 
shepherd, tailor, author. 

Change rer into ress : Adulterer, adventurer, caterer, mur- 
derer, sorcerer. 

Change ter or tor into tress, and der into dress : 
Actor, arbiter, benefactor, chanter, enchanter, conductor, em- 
bassador, elector, founder, huckster, hunter, idolater, inventor, 
instructor, Mister, painter, porter, protector, proprietor, team- 
ster, songster, traitor, victor, waiter, auditor, editor, orator. 

Change tor into trix: Administrator, exec'utor, testator. 

Change tor into tress or trix : Director, mediator, spec- 
tator. 

"Words not so Regular. 

Masculine. 
Margrave, 
Joseph, 
Paul, 
Goodman, 
Widower, 
Don, 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Emperor, 


empress, 


Tiger, 


tigress. 


Negro, 


negres?. 


Votary, 


votaress. 


Duke, 


duchess. 


Marquis, 


marchioness, 


Anchoret, 
Anchorite. 


>• anchoress. 


Doctor, 


( doctoress, 
( doctress. 


Tutor, 


( tutoress, 
1 tut ress. 


Hero, 


her'oine. 



Landgrave, landgravine. 



Infant, 
Sign or, 

Sultan, 

Tzar, 
Augustus, 
Cornelius, 
Louis, 



Feminine. 

margravine. 

Josephine. 

Pauline, 

goody. 

widow. 

donna. 

infanta. 

signora. 
f sultana, 
( sultaness. 

tzari'na. 

Augusta. 

Cornelia. 

Loui'sa, -Ise'. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 85 

John, Joanna. Jesse, Jessie. 

Henry, Henrietta. Frank, ) FrancC8- 

Julius, Julia, Juliet. Francis,) 
Words derived or compounded from others, usually 

express gender in the same way. 

Archduke, archduchess. Grandfather, grandmother. 

Landlord, landlady. Stepson, stepdaughter. 

Schoolmaster, schoolmistress. Peacock, peahen, 

3. By using a distinguishing word. 

Bear, hc-hcar, she-bear. Cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow. 

Goat, Ac-goat, she-goat. Mule descendants, /e//ia/e descendants. 

Servant, ?«aw-servant, 7?*a/Y/-servant. ^ Rey^^g S ^ rs - Reynolds, 
Rabbit, buck-vabbii, doe-rabbit. ' \ Miss Reynolds. 

Some masculine terms have rarely or never corresponding femi- 
nines, as baker, brewer, lawyer : and some feminine terms have rarely 
or never corresponding masculines, as laundress, coquet, hag. 

The gender, and why : — 

Person, corpse, corps, spirit, angel, they, T, hers, game, clergy, 
party, nations. John is a noun, and she is a pronoun. 

PERSON. 

228. Person is that property of words which shows 
whether the speaker is meant, the person spoken to, or 
the person or thing spoken of. 

229. There are three persons ; the firsts the second, 
and the third. 

230. A noun or pronoun is of the first person, when 
it denotes the speaker. "I Paul have written it." 

231. A noun or pronoun is of the second person, when 
it denotes the person spoken to. " Paul, thou hast writ- 
ten it." 

232. A noun or pronoun is of the third person, when 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

• 

it denotes the person or thing spoken of. "Paul has 
written it." 

233. The third person is sometimes elegantly used for 
the first or second. 

Ex. — " The king is always willing to listen to the just complaints 
of his subjects " ; for, "/ am always willing," etc. " Surely, my 
mother does not mean to marry me to such an old miser " ; for, 
" Surely, mother, you do not," etc. 

When inanimate objects are addressed, they are of course personi- 
fied, or regarded as persons ; as, u O Liberty I what crimes are com- 
mitted in thy name ! " — Madame Roland. 

When a noun comes after a verb and explains the nominative, it 
is of the third person, though the nominative may be of the first or 
second person ; as, "lam the sheriff" (I am he.) " You are heroes" 

The nouns and pronouns, and why ; of what person, and why : — 

You will find that many evils beset us mortals. 

I said to him, Well, my little friend, how fare the school-boys ? 

Change into the other persons : — 

John writes. The girls study. Henry, you may play. 

Shall Hannibal compare himself with this half-year captain ? 

NUMBER. 

234 • Number is that property of words which shows 
whether one object is meant, or more than one. 

235. There are two numbers ; the singular and the 
plural. 

236. A noun or pronoun is of the singular number, 
when it denotes but one object. Tree, she. 

237. A noun or pronoun is of the plural number, when 
it denotes more objects than one. Trees, they. 

238. A proper noun is made plural, when it is needed 
to denote a family, race, or group, or two or more indi- 
viduals of the same name or character. 

Ex. — The Dixons; the Cherokees; the Azores ; the twelve Caesars. 






NOUNS AND PRONOUNS, 



>U> 






L! 



87 



239. The names of qualities, states, actions, substances, 
arts, sciences, and diseases, when the reference is to the 
kind of thing, are generally used in the singular number 
only. J j 

Ex. — Pride, peace, business, gold, grammar, painting, fever. 

240. But such words may become plural, — 

1. When different kinds are meant. 

Ex. — Teas, fevers. " The nationalities and religions of tho 
world." — Chapin. 

2. When things are meant that have the property or 
substance, or consist of parts. 

Ex. — Curiosities, marbles, paintings, proceedings. " The heights 
around the city." — Gen. Scott. " I had only a few coppers left," — 
Franklin. " I heard the waters roar down the cataract." — Addison. 

241. Some nouns are always plural, especially the 
names of things consisting of two or many parts. 



Aborigines 


Eaves 


Matins 


Stairs 


Annals 


Embers 


Nuptials 


Statistics 


Antip'odes 


Entrails 


Nippers 


Stilts 


Ar'chives 


Goggles 


Oats 


Suds 


Ashes 


Hatches 


Paraphernalia Thanks 


As'sets 


Head'-quarters Pinchers 


Teens 


Belles-let'tres 


Hose 


Pleiads 


Tongs 


Billiards 


Hysterics 


Regalia 


Tidings 


Bitters 


Ides 


Riches 


Trousers 


Breeches 


Lees 


Remains 


Tweezers 


Cattle 


Litera'ti 


Scissors 


Victuals 


Clothes 


Lungs 


Shears 


Vitals 


Dregs 


Mammalia 


Snuffers 


Withers. 



To the foregoing list belong a few more words less common; also most of 
the scientific family names of animals and plants. 

Some nouns, that have the singular, have acquired a plural 
that differs from it in meaning. Plurals of this kind also be- 
long to the list above. 



88 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Deer 


Series 


Sheep 


Species 


Swine 


Corps 


Vermin 


Apparatus 


Grouse 


Bellows 


Head (cattle) 


Gallows 


Sail (ships) 


Means 



Ex. — Arms, weapons ; colors, banner ; compasses, dividers ; divid- 
ers^ an instrument ; drawers, an article of clothing; goods, merchan- 
dise ; greens, young leaves for cooking ; grounds, dregs ; letters, litera- 
ture ; manners, behavior ; morals, morality ; shambles, meat-market ; 
spectacles, glasses ; stays, a corset ; vespers, evening hymn. 

242. Sometimes such a word may be used in the sin- 
gular number, to denote a part or an individual. 

Ex. — " The left lung was diseased." — Dr. Rush. " A mam- 
mal" — Goldsmith. " A valuable statistic" — Census. 

243t Some nouns have the same form for either 
number. 

News Mathematics . 

Alms Politics 

Odds Physics 

Amends Metaphysics 

Wages Mechanics 
Pains (care) Glanders 

Ethics Measles, etc. 

It seems to us that all names of a plural form that denote sciences or dis- 
eases, should be classed under this head. 

News, though analogous to goods and odds, seems to be now used in the 
singular number only. Wages and pains are generally plural. 

Corps is pronounced kore in the singular number, and kores in the plural. 

A word of the foregoing class, especially if applied to a science or 
a disease, often denotes what is singular in its essence but plural in its 
manifestations ; and whether the word should be considered singular 
or plural, will therefore depend on our conception of the thing. 

244. Some nouns of number, preceded by a numeral, 
and some nouns denoting small animals or other objects 
regarded as to their nature or in mass, are also often used 
in the singular form to express either number. 

Ex. — " Twenty pair of eyes." — Shakespeare. " Three score and 
ten." — Bible. So, brace, dozen, yoke. " This creek abounds in 
trout and perch." — Exploring Expedition. " The foe ! they come ; 
they come." — Byron. Foot and horse, meaning troops, are thus 
often used in a plural sense ; and sometimes cannon and shot are thus 
used. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 89 

But the plural forms of most such nouns are also used, espe- 
cially when the word implies number or individuals rather than 
kind or quantity. 

Ex. — " Trouts and salmons swim against the stream." — Bacon. 
" As pilchards are to herrings" . — Shakespeare. " By scores and 
dozens." — Id. 

It seems, indeed, that some nouns, such as fish and fowl, have 
two plurals ; a regular one, denoting individuals or kinds, and 
a collective one, denoting the kind of thing, in which the word 
remains unchanged as in the case of collective nouns. 

245. A collective noun is singular, when the entire 
collection is regarded as one thing. 

Ex. — The army was large. 

246. A collective noun is plural, when it refers to the 
individuals composing the collection. 

Ex. — Most people are too solicitous about the future. 

247. A collective noun is plural, when it has the 
plural form. 

Ex. — The armies were large. 

How the Plural Number is Expressed. 

248. Most nouns are made plural, by adding s to the 
singular. 

Ex. — Book, books ; chimney, chimneys : nation, nations. 

249. Nouns that end with s, x, z, sh, or soft ch ; and 
nouns that end with i, o, u, or y, preceded each lyy a con- 
sonant, — are made plural by adding es to the singular. 

Ex. — Glass, glasses ; fox, foxes ; topaz, topazes : bush, bushes ; 
church, churches ; alkali, alkalies ; negro, negroes ; gnu^giiues; story, 
stories. (Y is changed to i. See p. 50.) 

250. When a vowel precedes final o or y, s only is an- 
nexed; as, folio, folios; monkey, monkeys. 



90 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



251. Proper nouns, foreign nouns, and unusual nouns, 
to prevent the liability of mistaking them, are varied as 
little as possib^ 1 ^ and hence they merely assume s, or es 
when s will'tiot coalesce in sound. 

Ex. — Denny, the Denny s ; Dennie, the Dennies ; Peri, Peris; 
canto, cantos; "several tosr [or foV] ; the two Miss Foots. But, 
Jones, the Joneses; Fox, the Foxes. 

When words of these classes are so familiarly known as to be 
easily recognized in almost any form, they are often made plural 
like ordinary nouns ; as, Henry, Henries ; Nero, Neroes ; no, noes. 

Owing to their foreign tinge, we still find in good use cantos, duo- 
decimos, fandangos, frescos, grottos, halos, hidalgos, juntos, lassos, 
mementos, octavos, pianos, porticos, quartos, salvos, solos, tyros, zeros \ in 
stead of cantoes, grottoes, etc., which are also coming into use. 



Life, lives. 
Loaf, loaves. 
Self, selves. 
Sheaf, sheaves. 
Shelf, shelves. 
Thief, thieves. 



wives, 
wolves. 



Wife, 
Wolf, 

Wharf, j wharfs ' 
(. wharves. 

^ re ( staves (sticks), 

(staffs (officers). 



252. The following nouns change the ending into 

ves: — 

Beef, beeves. 
Calf, calves. 
Elf, elves. 
Half halves. 
Knife, knives. 
Leaf, leaves. 

Staff always makes staffs in compounds ; as, flagstaff, flagstaff's. 

253. For forming the plural of some words, no general 
rule can be given ; and they are therefore said to be 
irregular. 

Goose, geese. 

Tooth, teeth. 

Mouse, mice. 

Louse, lice. 

Cow, cows, kine. That, those. 

The words ending with man, that are not compounds of man, are 



Man, men. 
Woman, women. 
Child, children. 
Ox, oxen. 

Foot, feet. 



I, we. 

Thou, ye. 

He, she, or it, they. 
This, these. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 91 

regular, or take s ; as, German, Germans ; talisman, talismans ; Mus- 
sulman, Mussulmans. 

254. Some nouns have both a regular and an irregular 

plural, but with a difference in meaning. 

Brother, brothers (of the same family), brethren (of the /5ame society). 

Die, dies (stamps for coining), d%e (small cubes for gaming). 

Fish, fishes (individuals), fish (quantity, or the species). 

Genius, geniuses (men of genius), ge'nu (spirits). 

Index, indexes (tables of contents), in'dices (algebraic signs). 

Penny, pennies (pieces of money), pence -(how much in value). 

Brothers is sometimes used in the sense of brethren^ probably as a more 

affectionate term. 

it * 4 

255. Most compound words are expressed in the 
plural number, by making plural only that part of the 
word which is described by the rest. 

Mouse-trap, mouse-traps. Brother-in-law, brothers-in-law. 

Cupful, cupfuls. Sister-in-law, sisters-in-law. 

Spoonful, spoonfuls. Billet-doux. billets-doux. 

Wagon-load, wagon-loads. Court-martial, courts-martial. 

Ox-cart, ox-carts. Aid-de-camp, aids-de-camp. 

258. The pluralized part of a compound word is made 
plural in the same way as if it stood alone. 

Ex. — Horseman, horsemen; dormouse, dormice; hanger-on, 
hangers-on. 

257. When a compound word is a foreign term or 
other phrase, of which the descriptive part is not very 
obvious, the whole term generally takes the regular 
plural ending. 

Piano-forte, piano-fortes. Tete-a-tete, tete-a-tetes. 

Camera-obscura, camera-obscuraS. Ipse-dixit, ipse-dixits. 

Port-monnaie, port-monnaieS. Jack-a-lantern, Jack-a-lanterns. 

258. A few terms have both parts made plural. 

Man-servant, men-servants. Ignis-fatuus, ignes-fatui. 

Woman-servant, women-servants. Knight Templar, Knights Templars. 
5 



92 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



259 • When the title Mr., Miss, or Dr., is used with a 
name, the whole term is made plural by making plural 
the title only. 

Ex. — Mr. Harper, Messrs. Harper ; Miss Brown, the Misses 
Brown ; Dr. Lee, Drs. Lee ; Messrs. John and James Morton ; Misses 
Julia and Alice Clark. 

260. When the title is Mrs., or when the word two, 
three, etc., stands before the title, the latter noun is made 
plural. 

Ex.— "The Mrs. Barlows." — Irving. "The two Miss Scotts 
had been gathering flowers." — Id. 

Other terms, consisting of names and titles, follow sometimes one 
analogy, and sometimes the other. " From Dutchesses and Lady 
Maries." — Pope. " I went to the Ladies Butler" — Swift. " May- 
there be Sir Isaac Newtons in every science." — Watts. 

261. Words adopted from other languages usually 
retain their foreign plurals in our language. Some, how-- 
ever, take the English plural only ; some, the foreign ; 
and some, either. 

No certain rule can be given for forming such plurals, but the fok 
lowing rules may be of some assistance : — 

1. The ending a is changed to ce or ata. 

2. The ending us is changed to i. 

3. The ending um or on is changed to a. 

4. The ending is is changed to es or ides. 

5. The ending x or ex is changed to ces or ices. 

R means that the word before it nas also the regular English plural. 
Change final 



A to ae : — 


Fib'ula 


Minu'tia 


A to ata : — 


Alum/na 


Form'ula, R. 


NCb'ula 


Dogma, R. 


(alumnca) 


Lam/ina 


Sco'ria 


(dogmas, dogmata) 


Are'na, R. 


Lar'va 


Sim'ia 


Stigma, R. 


Cica'da, R. 


Mac'ula 


Ver'tebra 


Mias'ma 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 



93 



Us to i : — 

Alum'nus 
{alumni) 
Cal'culus 
Echi'nus 
Focus, R. 
Fungus, R. 
Hippopotamus, R 
Ma'gus 
Nau'tilus, R. 
Nu'cleus, R, 
Pol'ypus, R. 
Ra'dius, R. 
Sarcoph'agus 
Stim'ulus 
Ter'minus 
Tu'mulus 

Urn or on to a : 

Animal ; culum 

(animalculci) 

Aphe'lion, 

Aqua'rium, R. 

Arca'num 

Autom'aton, R. 

Gorrigen'dum 

Crite'rion, R. 

Datura 

Desidera'tum 

Effiu'vium 

Ephera'eron 

Enco'mium, R. 

Erra'tum 



Fulcrum, R. 
Gymna'sium, R. 
Herba'rium, R. 
Me'dium, R. 



Phasis 
Praxis 
Synop'sis 
Synthesis 



Memorandum, R. Thesis 
Menstruum, R. 
Momentum, R. 
Parhe'lion 
Perihe'lion 
Phenomenon 
Rostrum, R. 
Scho'lium, R. 
Spectrum, R. 
Spec'ulum, R. 
Stratum, R. 
Trape'zium, R. 
Vin'culum, R. 

Is to es: — 

Amanuen'&is 
(amanuenses) 



Is to ides : — 

Aphis 

(aph'ides) 

Apsis 

Can'tharis 

Chrys'alis 

Ephem'cris 

Epider'mis 

Iris, R. 

Probos'cis 

X to ees: — 



Anal'ysis 

Antithesis 

Axis 

Basis 

Crisis 

Diaer'esis 

Di'esis 

Ellipsis 

Em'phasis 

Hypothesis 

Metamor'phosis 

O'asis 

Paren'thesis 



Appendix, R. 
(appeu'dixes, 
appendices) 
Calx, R. 
Ca'lyx, R. 
Cicatrix, R. 
He'lix, R. 
Ma'trix, R. 
Ra'dix, R. 

Ex to ices : - 

Apex, R. 
(a f pexes, a p' ices) 
Vertex, R. 
Vortex, R. 



Less Regular. 
Beau, R., 
beaux. 
Bandit, R., 
banditti. 
Cher'ub, R., 
cherubim. 
Ge'nus, 
gen' era. 

Hiatus, R., 
hiatus. 

Lar'ynx, R., 

laryn'ges. 

Madame, 

Mesdames. 

Monsieur, 

Messieurs. 

Mr., 

Messrs. 

Pha'lanx, R., 

phalan'ges. 

Ser'aph, R , 

sci^aphim. 

Sta'men, R., 

stam'ina. 

Ver'tigo, R., 
vertig'ines. 

Virtuo'so, 

virtuosos, 

virtuosi. 



The English plurals of the foregoing words are generally pre- 
ferred in familiar language ; and the foreign, in scientific. 

262. Letters, figures, and other characters, are made 
plural by annexing 's. 

Ex. — "The a's and n*s in the first line." "By 5's and 7's." 
" What mean those § 's. and 9's? " The apostrophe is used to pre- 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

vent ambiguity ; thus, " Cross your t's and dot your fo" is not the 
same as " Cross your ts and dot your is" 5s might mean 5 shillings 
or five times 5. 

Numbers of Pronouns. 

263. In editorials, speeches, and proclamations, we, 
our, us, etc., are frequently used to denote apparently 
but one. 

Ex. — " We believe that the war can not last much longer." 

London Times. 

This manner of speaking gives generally an air of modesty or 
authority to the assertion ; the speaker seeming to deliver his own 
sentiments as if they were also entertained or could be enforced by 
others as well as by himself. 

To the foregoing manner of speaking, ourself is peculiarly adapted, 
and it is sometimes used accordingly. " What then remains ? Our- 
self" — Pope's Goddess of Dullness. 

264. You, your, and yours, are now singular as well 
as plural ; but yourself is strictly singular. 

265. What, in close connection with a plural, is some- 
times used in the plural number. 

Ex. — "We were now at the mercy of what are called guerillas." 

266. None (no-one) is used in either the singular or 
the plural number. 

Ex. — "None is good save One." — Bible. " None are completely 
happy." — Blair. 

267. Relative, interrogative, and some adjective pro* 
nouns, have the same form for both numbers ; and most 
other pronouns are irregular. 

For the analogies which most pronouns follow, see paragraphs 243 and 253. 
The number, and why : — 

Rose, roses, molasses, ashes, family, families, I, we, him, 
them, two, a two, a pair, two pair, memoranda, miasma, cheru- 
bim, optics, commanders-in-chief, orang-outangs. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 95 

Spell the plural of the following words : — 

Sofa, larva, house, mouse, feather-bed, booth, tooth, ox, box, 
root, foot, turf, wolf, genus, genius, isthmus, trio, cargo, valley, 
Tuily, alley, ally, trellis, ellipsis, Mr. Jones, Mrs. Jones. 

CASE. 

268. Case is that property of nouns and pronouns 
which shows how they are used in the construction of 
sentences. 

269. There are three cases ; the nominative^ the pos- 
sessive, and the objective. 

Nominative Case. 

270. A noun or pronoun is in the nominative case, 
w T hen it is the subject of a predicate-verb. 

That is, when an act or state is predicated of it. — See page 5. 
Ex. — "John struck James." {Who struck James ?) " The rose 
is beautiful." ( What is beautiful V) " He came after / left." 
W. Him and me went to school together. — See p. 103. 

271. A noun or pronoun is also in the nominative case f 
when it is used independently or absolutely. 

272. A noun or pronoun is used independently, — 

1. By direct address. " John, your father is here." 

2. By exclamation. " Alas, poor Yorick!" 

3. By pleonasm or specification. " He that hath ears, 
let him hear." " Worcester's Dictionary, Unabridged." 

To this last head belong inscriptions, and generally those nouns 
which are used merely to name objects. — See p. 100. 

273. A noun or pronoun is used absolutely, when, by 
some abridgment,- it is set free, or absolved, from its nom- 
inative relation to a finite verb, but still remains with the 
participle or the infinitive. 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" The house being sold, we removed." (When the house was sold, etc.) 
" The vanity of being a, belle." (" That she was a belle.") 
" To become a scholar, requires exertion." ( " He has become a scholar.") 
W. Me being sick, the business was neglected. — See p. 103. 

Possessive Case. 

274. A noun or pronoun is in the possessive case, when 
it denotes possession. 

Ex. — Johns horse. (Whose horse ?) My slate. 

Possession may be past, or future and intended, as well as present 
and actual ; as, " Webster } s Dictionary " ; " Men's boots for sale here." 
The former example implies origin ; the latter, fitness. 

275. The possessive case of nouns is formed by an- 
nexing to -the name of the owner an apostrophe ('), and 
then the letter s. 

Ex. —Mary's slate. Burns 9 s poems. Men's affairs. 

W. Henrys books. Brooks' translation. Childrens' playthings. 

276. The apostrophe only is annexed to plural nouns that 
end with s. 

Ex. — The soldiers 9 camp. 

277. The possessive s is sometimes omitted from singular 
nouns that end with the sound of s, when so many hissing 
sounds would come together as to produce unusual harshness. 

Ex. — " The defeat of Xerxes 9 army was the downfall of Persia." 

Rollin. 

A singular noun that ends with an s-sound, should generally have 
the apostrophe and s; as, "Dennis's Works." — Pope. "Louis's 
reign." — Macaulay. " Charles's affairs." — Prescott. " For con- 
science 9 sake," " For goodness 9 sake," are rather idiomatic exceptions 
to the rule, than fair illustrations of a general principle. 

Possession may also be expressed by of and sometimes by an ad- 
jective, or a noun made an adjective ; hence, — 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 97 

278. The meaning of the possessive case is sometimes 
more elegantly expressed by using of, or by making the 
possessive word an adjective.. 

" The death of Socrates" is a better expression than " Socrates's 
death"; and "Lucas Place" is quite as intelligible as Lucas's 
Place." 

W. Essex's death. Demosthenes's orations. 

279. The two possessive forms of such words as deer and 
sheep are distinguished by placing the apostrophe before the s 
in the singular number, and after it in the plural ; as, deer's, 
deers\ This is a questionable rule. 

280. A compound or complex term takes the posses- 
sive sign but once ; generally at the end, or next to the 
name of what is owned. 

Ex. — The court-martial' s decisions ; the courts-martiaVs decisions. 

M The Bishop of LandafTs residence." " Edward Everett's ora- 
tion." " At Hall's, the baker" " At Hall the baker's" Supply resi- 
dence or store. 

W. At Smith's, the bookseller's. 

28L A pair or series of nouns, implying common pos- 
session, take the possessive sign at the end, and but 
once. 

Ex. — " Oakley and Mason's store"; i. e., the store of Oakley and 
Mason. 

282. A pair or series of nouns, not implying common 
possession, or emphatically distinguished, take each the 
possessive sign. 

Ex. — " Webster's and Worcester's Dictionary"; i. e., Webster's 
Dictionary and Worcester's Dictionary. " By his mother's as well as 
his father's advice." 

W. John and Mary's books. 

In such expressions as all the foregoing, of ia sometimes preferable. 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Idiomatic Expressions. — "A discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's " 
is equivalent to "A discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's discoveries." 
" That head of yours" however, is not equivalent to *< That head of 
your heads" ; but the expression can be parsed by considering it 
equivalent to " That head of your possession." — See p. 103. 

Objective Case. 

283. A noun or pronoun is in the objective case, when 
it is the object of a transitive verb or a preposition. 

Transitive means passing over. A transitive verb generally denotes an act that 
passes over from one person or thing to another ; as, strike. The object of a transitive 
verb or a preposition is the noun or pronoun which completes its relation. 

Ex. — "The soldiers carried their bleeding companion to the 
river." (Carried whom f to what f) " Whom did you send to me ? " 
W. Who do you want ? Who did you send for ? See p. 103. 

284. A noun or pronoun is also in the objective case, 
when it is used in the sense of an adjunct. 

An adjunct is a preposition with the noun or pronoun required after it to 
complete the sense j as, u on the floor." 

Ex. — "I do not care a straw." Care not how much? "The 
street is a mile long, and sixty feet wide." Long and wide to what 
extent ? " He went home" Went to what place ? 

The objectives under the latter head are simply phrases from 
which the preposition has been dropped ; as, " He remained five 
days " = He remained during five days. In many cases the prepo- 
sition can be supplied : but when such an abridged mode of expres- 
sion has struck root in a language, there springs up at once an idiom ; 
and since the relation of the object to the other word is simply the 
known relation between the things, cases may occur in which no suit- 
able preposition can be found, for that relation may never have been 
expressed by any preposition in the language. 

285. There are expressions, however, obviously ellip- 
tical. 

Ex. — "Dr. Rush, No. 340, Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, Penn.* 
To Dr. Rush, at No. 840, on Chestnut Street, in Philadelphia, in Pennsylvania. 



r. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 



99 

Same Case. 

286. A noun or pronoun is generally in the same case 
as another, when it denotes the same person or thing. 

Ex. — " Cortez, the conqueror of Mexico, was a brave man*' 
Cortex may be called the leading or principal term ; and the other, 
the subordinate or explanatory term. 

287. The subordinate term may be, — 

1. An emphatic wx>rd. "Brown himself went." 

2. An explanatory word. " Brown the merchant" 

3. A repeated word, repeated for emphasis or expla- 
^y nation. "I, J, am the man." " Company, villainous 

company, has been the ruin of me." 

288. Under same case, two kinds of construction may 
\ be noticed ; predication and apposition. 

289. When an intransitive or passive verb joins the 
\ two terms, the latter is said to be predicated of the other, 

j and may be called a predicate nominative or substantive. 

Ex. — " He is Governor." "He was elected Governor." "The 
' ^ world is but a stage, and all the men and women [are] merely play- 
ers." — Shakespeare. 

" Tom struts a soldier." — Pope. " She walks a queen." — Id. 
W. It was me. Is it him ? I knew it was her. — See p. 103. 

290. The verb declares the identity between the two 
a terms, or shows how that identity is acquired or made 
J known. 

When an infinitive or a participle joins the explanatory term to 
an objective term, the relation is still predication rather than apposi- 
tion ; but the explanatory term should then be called simply a pred- 
icate-substantive, for it is not a nominative; as, "I know it to be 
him." After a participle, the explanatory term is generally a pre- 
dicate-now [native ; as, " He, being the brother, interceded." 



J 



100 EKGLISH GRAMMAR. 

291 • When no verb joins the terms, the latter term is 
said to be in apposition with the other, and is called an 

appos'itive. 

Ex. — " Webster, the orator and statesman, was not related to Web- 
ster the lexicographer." " At Smith's, the bookseller" " A firth, or 
frith." " As a statesman, he had great ability ." " It is useless to 
resist." " It is plain that he must fail." The terms in apposition some- 
times differ in form, as Smith's and bookseller above. — See p. 211. 

y 292. Two words are also in apposition, when both are 
objects of a verb that produces the identity. 

Ex. — " They named her Mary." (She was named Mary.) 

" They elected him Mayor" (He was elected Mayor.) 

293. Two or more explanatory nouns are also in appo- 
sition, when used together to denote the same person ; 
though they may not be explanatory of each other. 

Ex. — Yonder lives a great scholar and statesman. 

294. The explanatory term sometimes precedes the 
other, or the verb. 

Ex. — " A man he was to all the country dear." — Goldsmith. 

" Who is he ? " He is who ? ( Who asks for explanation,) 

295 • It is not always necessary that the explanatory 
term should agree with the other in any thing else than 
ease. 

Ex. — " Our liberties, our greatest blessing, we shall not give up so 
easily." " / was eyes to the blind, and feet was i" to the lame." 

296. The whole is sometimes again mentioned by a 
distributive word, or by words denoting the parts ; and 
sometimes the separate persons or things are summed up 
in one emphatic word denoting the whole. 

Ex. — " They bore each a banner." " The two love each [love? 
the] other." (See p. 80.) " Time, labor, money, all were lost." 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 101 

u But those that sleep, and think not of their sins, 
Pinch them, — arms, legs, backs, shoulders, sides, and shins,* 9 — Shah 

297. The explanatory term is sometimes cut off from 
the other by a governing word, and may then be differ- 
ent in case. 

Ex. — Yonder is the city of St. Louis. 



Cases of Pronouns. 

298. The compound personal pronouns, and some other 
pronouns, are used only in the nominative and the objec- 
tive case ; and for both they have the same form. 

See the declension of pronouns, p. 103. 

299. To express emphatic distinction in the possessive 
case, we use the word own in stead of self or selves. 

Ex. — Every man should attend to his own business. 

300. Who is declined, ivhat is not declined, and which 
and that borrow ivhose ; but all the relative pronouns 
have the same form for both numbers. 

301. What, used as a common relative pronoun, and 
sometimes other expressions of the same kind, may sup- 
ply two cases. 

Ex. — " Take what suits you." Here what is the object of take and 
also the subject of suits. 

302. When the form of the relative prevents it from fur- 
nishing two cases, it must take the form requirod for its own 
clause, and a suitable antecedent must be supplied for the other 
clause. 

Ex. — M Give it to whoever needs it.7 Whoever can not be both 
objective and nominative ; therefore its nominative form is preferred 
so as to suit the verb needs, and an antecedent is supplied for to. 



102 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



" Give it to any person who [that] needs it." The ever or soever 
must generally be omitted when the antecedent is supplied. — See 
p. 78. 

303. When what is interrogative or responsive, it has 
but one case, and that depends on some word in its own 
-clause. 

Ex. — " What is it ? — I do not know what it is." What is in the 
nominative case agreeing with it. Know governs not what, but the 
entire clause beginning with tfiat. 

304. One, other, and another, are declined like nouns. 

DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

Having shown you what properties nouns and pronouns have, we 
shall next show you, briefly and regularly, how the different nouns 
and pronouns are written to express these properties, This pro- 
cess is called declension. 

305* To Decline a noun or pronoun is to show, in 
some regular way, what forms it has to express its gram- 
matical properties. 

Observe that nouns sometimes remain unchanged, and that pro- 
nouns are sometimes wholly changed, to express their properties. 



NOUNS, 





Singular 






Plural. 




Nominative. 


Possessive. 


Objective. 


Nominative. 


Possessive. 


Objective. 


Boy, 


boy's, 


boy; 


boys, ■ 


boys', 


boys. 


Man, 


man's, 


man; 


men, 


men's, 


men. 


Lady, 


lady's, 


lady; 


ladies, 


ladies', 


ladies. 


Fox, 


fox's, 


fox; 


foxes, 


foxes', 


foxes. 


Smith, 


Smith's, 


Smith ; 


Smiths, 


Smiths'* 


Smiths, 


John, 


John's, 


John. 









Decline Mary, woman, duchess, state, farmer, Benjamin, city. 



* / 



■ ?+L 






Ts> 



^t-V-W. 






vfc 






NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

PRONOUNS. 

Singular. 



103 



Plural. 



1st Pers. 



2d Pers. 



3d Pers. 



Nom. 
I, 

Thou, 

You, 

Mas. He, 



<%'. 



Poss. 
( mine 

(thme, ) . 



,} me; 



Norn. Poss. 
jour, 
( ours, 



we, 



I you ; you, ( 



i 



ye ' ^your, 
*) yours, 



Obj. 
> us. 

you. 



yours, ) 

his, him ; 



f her ' I her; 
rs, ) 



> they, 



( their, 



( theirs, 



them. 



Fern. She, < , 

7 I hers, 

JVewtf. It, its, it ; 

Norn, or Obj. Nom. or 06/. 

1st Pers. Myself (or ourself ) ; ourselves. 

2d Pers. Thyself or yourself; yourselves. 

34 Pers. Himself, herself, itself ; themselves. 

Nom. Poss. Obj. Nom. Poss. Obj. 

One, one's, one; ones, ones', ones. 

Other, other's, other; others, others', others. 

None, none ; none, none. 

'Who, whose, whom, (-ever or -soever.) 

Singular Which, (whose,) which. " 

or i What, what. " 

Plural. That, (whose.) that. " 

h As, as. " 

Decline I, thou, you, he, she, it, myself, thyself, yourself, him- 
self herself itself, one, other, who, whoever, whosoever, which 9 
whichever, what, that, as, none. 

Exercises. 

Tell which words are nouns, and why ; which words are pronouns, and why : — 
Tell what kind of 'noun , and why ; what kind of pronoun } and why : — J 

Mention the gender, and why : — 
Mention the person, and why : — 



104 .ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Mention the number, and why : — 

Mention the case, and why ; or show on what word it depends: — 

It will probably be best to interrogate the pupil on but one thing at a time, through all 
the following sentences. 

Jesus wept. Farmers plough. Iron rusts. Jerusalem was 
destroyed. He works. She studies. I thank you. John 
found Mary's book. Lucy's lamb nips the grass. Our friends 
are kind. Albert wrote his name in his book. Love and 
.kindness go together. Colonel Thomas H. Benton died in the 
year 1858. Hannibal defeated the Romans. Hatred produces 
strife. Vain people love flattery. Must I leave thee, Para- 
dise ? Captain Cook sailed round the world. We went to 
Boston. Boston is the capital of Massachusetts. Youth, the 
morning of life, is often misspent. She seemed a creature fresh 
from the hands of God. A herd of buffaloes crossed the 
prairie. A flock of blackbirds is on the tree. The groves 
were. God's first temples. There are lions and ostriches in 
Africa. She deceived herself. The lady who had been sick, 
received the peaches which were ripe. This is the same marble 
that you gave me, and it is the best one that I have. Is this 
apple yours, or mine ? We bought only such mules as we 
needed. Who is perfect? Whom did you see? What you 
thoroughly understand, you can easily describe. Whatsoever 
comes from the heart, goes to the heart. Ferdinand and Isa- 
bella, the king and queen of Spain, enabled Columbus, a Gen- 
oese, to discover America. Liberty has God on her side. 
Bad boys spoil good ones. I am the captain, sir. There has 
been much severe fighting in crushing this rebellion. I like 
apples. I like to skate. Learn the how and the why. Why 
he went, is obvious. (What is obvious ?) I know that you can 
learn. (I know what ?) It is probable that he will be elected. 
(What is probable ?) The storm having ceased, we renewed 
our journey. 

" On that day of desolation, lady, I was captive made ; 
Bleeding for my Christian nation, by the walls of high Belgrade." 



ARTICLES. 105 

What is the objective corresponding to — 

I ? — thou ? — we ? — ye ? — you ? — he ? — she ? — it ? — 
they ? — who ? 

What is the nominative corresponding to — 

Me ? — us ? — thee ? — him ? — whom ? — her ? — hers ? — 
them ? — themselves ? — herself ? — it ? — which ? 

Form the compound pronoun : — 

My, our, thy, your, him, her, it, them, who, which, what. 

Of what gender, person, number, and case is each of the following pronouns? 

Him, his, its, he, them, it, I, you, thy, their, she, thou, me, 
your, us, they, my, mine, thine, yours, hers, others, theirs, 
we, thee, our, ours, ye, myself, themselves, ourselves, thyself, 
yourselves, yourself, himself, itself, herself, one, none, one's, 
ones', other, others', who, what, which, whatever. 

ARTICLE S. 

306. An Article is the word the, a, or <m, placed 
before a noun to limit its meaning. 

Ex. — Horses ; a horse, the horse, the horses ; the others. 
Sometimes an article, as in the last example, is placed before a pronoun. 

r» , . « . - ( Definite- The. 

Classification. < -_•; n . * 

C Indefinite, A or An. 

307. The is used to point out a particular object or class, 
or something as being a particular one, part, or group. 

" The sun"; i. 6., not a particular sun, but a particular object 
that is called sun. 

u Honor the soldier " ; " Here lived the Cherokees." A particular 
class of persons. 

" The first man " ; " the lungs ,; ; " the first men." One, part, group. 

Sometimes the may point out either a particular one or part of a 
class, or else the entire class as distinguished from other kinds of ob- 
jects ; as, " The bee stung him " ; " The bee is a pattern of industry." 

W. Wisest and best men sometimes commit errors. 

Sometimes one article is improperly used for another. 






106 \l 1. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

308. The sometimes precedes a proper noun, to ren- 
der it sufficiently definite ; or it points out an object as 
already known, or as pre-eminently distinguished. 

Ex. — Ohio means a State ; but the Ohio, a river. 
" The Fulton went up the river this morning." 
" Fulton went up the river this morning," may relate to a man. 
" The generous Lafayette and the noble Washington." 
" These are the sacred feelings of thy heart, O Lyttleton, the friend? 
W. Connecticut is a beautiful river. 

309. The may relate to a singular or a plural word, 
Ex. — The river, the rivers ; the fourth man, the four men. 

310. A or An is used to show that no particular one 
of a class is meant. 

A man, an insect ; a small picture. " He was a merchant." 
W. The interest is the fourth part of the debt. 

311. A or an can be used to point out one only, or 
one aggregate. Sometimes more are spoken of, but they 
are still considered one by one. 

Ex. — "A pen " ; not, a pens. An eye ; a large tree ; a dozen 
apples ; a wealthy people ; a few dimes. " We paid for the mules 
a hundred dollars a head." 

W. A winding stairs led us to the observatory. ( A flight of, etc.) 

When a noun is limited by other words, the indefinite article does 

not relate merely to the noun, but to the noun with its limitations. 

" A young man," " A man of fine sense," do not mean no particular 

man, but no particular young man, no particular man of fine sense. 

312. A and an are both called the indefinite article; 
because they are but a later and an earlier form of the 
same word, have the same meaning, and differ in use only. 

313. A should be used whenever the next word be- 
gins with a consonant sound. 

U long, e&, w, o in one, and y articulated with a vowel 
after it, have each a consonant sound. 



ARTICLES. 107 

Ex. — A brother, a cup, a union, a eulogy J sueli a one. 
W. An useful exercise. An hundred men. Such an one, 

314. An should be used whenever the next word be- 
gins with a vowel sound. 

That is, an should be used before a, e, i, o, u not 
equivalent to yu, y equivalent to i 9 silent 7^, and h faintly 
sounded when the next syllable has the chief accent. 

Ex. — An arm, an ear, an inch, an oar, an hour ; an hero'ic deed. 

W. A interest. A adjective. A officer. A honor. A historian. 

315» No Article is used when we refer chiefly to the 
nature of the object, to the class generally, dr to only a 
part indefinitely ; also when the substantive is sufficiently 
definite itself, or is rendered so by other words. 

Ex. — Meat is dearer than bread. Gold is heavier than silver* 
Peaches are better than apples. Virtue and vice are opposites. Work- 
ing is better than starving. He honors the name of gentleman. Man 
is endowed with reason. There axe fishes that have wings. George; 
Post-Office ; that tree ; some tree ; words that breathe. " They were 
the means by which " ; not, the which. 

W. A cypress is a curious species of a tree. 

The highest officer of a State is styled a Governor. 
Reason was given to a man to control his passions. 

The article, and why; whether definite or indefinite, and why ; and to what 
word it relates : — 

The roses in the garden. {The what ?) The rose is a beau- 
tiful flower. A fish from the river. A daughter of a duke. 
The daughter of the duke. A daughter of the duke- An 
eagle's nest. 

Place the proper indefinite article before each of the following words or 
phrases : — 

Razor, house, knife, humming-bird, chicken, ounce, insult, 

aunt, ox, ball, hundred, African, hexameter; interesting story; 

honest man ; humble cottage. 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ADJECTIVES. 

316. An Adjective is a word used to qualify or limit 
the meaning of a noun or pronoun. 

Ex. — A mellow apple;- a beautiful' woman ; a brilliant star ; Jive 
carriages ; yonder mountains ; brass buttons ; hoary-headed men. 
He is brave and prudent To slight the poor is mean. 

317. Words from other parts of speech are frequently 
used as adjectives. 

Ex. — A gold ring ; a mahogany table ; California gold ; she poli- 
ticians ; a would-be scholar ; parsing exercises ; the far-off future ; 
the above remarks ; a farewell address. 

" The lightnings flashed vermilion" — Dante. (Were red.) 

CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 

318. Adjectives are divided into two chief classes; 
descriptive and definitive. 

319. A Descriptive Adjective describes or qualifies. 

Ex. — White, good. " The green forest glowed in golden light." 

320. A Definitive Adjective merely specifies or 
limits. 

Ex. — There are many wealthy farmers in this country. 

321. Adjectives may be divided into several smaller 
classes ; namely, common, proper, participial, compound, 
numeral, and pronom'inal. 

This classification is not strictly logical, but it is convenient and instructive. 

322. A common adjective is any ordinary adjective 
that expresses quality or circumstance ; as, good, upper, 
daily. 

323. A proper adjective is an adjective derived from 
a proper noun ; as, American, English, Newtonian. 

324. A participial adjective is a participle used as a 
descriptive adjective. " Tivinkling stars." — See p. 221. 



ADJECTIVES. 109 



325. A compound adjective is a compound word 
used as an adjective. " Thick-warbled songs." 

326. A numeral adjective is a definitive adjective 
that expresses number. 

327. Numeral Adjectives are divided into four classw ; 
cardinal, ordinal, multiplicative, and indefinite. 

1. A cardinal numeral tells how many ; as, one, two. 

2. An ordinal numeral tells which one ; as, first, second. 

3. A multiplicative numeral tells how many fold ; as, single, double. 

4. An indefinite numeral expresses number indefinitely; a,s,feiv, many. 

328. Pronominal adjectives are definitive adjectives 
that are sometimes used as pronouns. 

Not all the words usually called pronominal adjectives, can be used as pronouns^ 

329. Pronominal Adjectives are divided into three 
classes ; distributive, demonstrative, and indefinite. 

1. The distributive relate to objects taken separately* 
Ex. — Each, every, either, neither, many a. — See p. 80. 

2. The demonstrative point out objects definitely. 

Ex. — This, these, that, those, you, yonder, same, former, latter* 

3. The indefinite relate to objects indefinitely. 

Ex. — Any, other, another, one, both, all, some, such, several. 

DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 

330. Comparison is that property of adjectives and 
adverbs which expresses quality in different degrees. 

Ex. — Lime is white; milk is whiter; snow is the whitest. 

" Mules are more hardy and less expensive than horses." 

331. There are three degrees of comparison; \he posi- 
tive, the comparative, and the superlative. 

332. Positive. An adjective is in the positive degree, 
when it expresses simply the quality ; as, hard, good. 

333. Comparative. An adjective is in the compara- 
tive degree, when it expresses the quality in a higher or 
a lower degree ; as, harder, less hard. 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

334. Superlative. An adjective is in the superlative 
degree, when it expresses the quality in the highest or the 
lowest degree ; as, hardest, least hard. 

The positive degree sometimes implies comparison from its syntax, 
but without referring to a higher or a lower degree of the same 
quality ; as, " She is as good. as he, and as modest as she is beautiful/' 

335. The Comparative Degree may imply, — 

1. Two different objects with the same quality. 
Ex. — Honey is sweeter than molasses. 

W. This is the best of any other. 

The youngest of the two sons is yet going to school. 

2. Two different conditions of the same object. 
Ex. — A nation is happier in peace than in war. 

3. Two different qualities in the same object. 

Ex. — A nation may be more prosperous than virtuous. 

Sometimes, though seldom with elegance, different qualities of dif- 
ferent objects can be compared ; as, " My horse is whiter than yours 
is black" 

336. The Superlative Degree usually implies three 
or more objects or conditions ; and it may refer simply 
to the rest considered, or to all others. 

Ex. — " The least of three evils." 

" The best peaches are already taken from the tree*' 
" The loveliest flowers were there.'' — Carlyle. 
" I am happiest at home." " The river is highest in June." 
The degree of comparison is sometimes estimated from so low a 
positive that it falls even below a full positive ; as, " Your claim is 
better than his, though neither is good" ; "Your largest horse is not 
large" And comparatives and superlatives are sometimes estimated 
from other comparatives or superlatives ; as, " My kite rose higher, 
and higher, and higher, until it was highest, and far higher than the 
highest of all the other kites." 

" And in the lowest depth a lower deep, 
Still threatening to devour me, opens wide." — Milton. 



ADJECTIVES. Ill 

337* An adjective can not be compared with propri- 
ety, when it denotes a quality or property that can not 
exist in different degrees. 

Ex. — Equal, level, perpendicular, square, naked, round, straight, 
one, two, second, deaf, dead, full, empty, perfect, right, honest, sin- 
cere, hollow, four-footed. 

338# Good writers sometimes compare such adjectives 
-when they do not take them in their full sense. 

Ex. — " Our sight is the most perfect of our senses." — Addison. 
This means that it approaches nearer, than the rest, to perfection. 
*'And love is still an emptier name."— Goldsmith. Most qualifying 
adjectives can be thus used either in a relative or in an absolute 
sense. 

339i The positive is sometimes diminished by annex- 
ing ish, or by using such words as rather ', somewhat, 
slightly, etc. 

Ex. — Black, blackish ; somewhat disagreeable ; rather young. 

340- A iigh degree of the quality, without implying 
direct comparison, is expressed by very, exceedingly, al- 
most, etc. 

Ex. — Very respectfully ; a most valiant soldier. 

How Adjectives are Compared- 

341, To express degrees below the positive, we use 
less and least. 

Positive, good ; comparative, less good; superlative, least good. 
Important, less important, least important^ 

342t To express degrees above the positive, we annex 
to it er and est, or place before it more and most. 

Ex. — Positive, rich ; comparative, richer ; superlative, richest. 

Deep, deeper, deepest; cheerful, more cheerful, most cheerful. 

Which of these methods should be used, depends chiefly on the 
Bound of the word, or on the number of its syllables. 

343, Adjectives of one syllable are compared by an- 
nexing er for the comparative, and est for the superlative. 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Large, larger, larger; sad, sadefer, saddest; dry, drier, dries/. 

While studying this section, the pupil should review the Rules for Spelling, pp. 50, 51. 

344. Adjectives of two syllables, ending with le or y, 

or accented on the second syllable, are also compared by 

annexing er and est. 

Able, abler, ablest; lovely, lovelier, loveliest; polite, politer, politest 
A few other adjectives of two syllables, especially those which end 

in a "vowel or a liquid sound, are sometimes compared by er and est ; 

as, narrow, narrower, narrowest; handsome, handsomer, handsomest. 

** The metaphor is the commonest figure." — Blair. " Philosophers 

are but a soberer sort of madmen." — Irving. 

345o Other adjectives of two syllables, and all adjec- 
tives of more than two syllables, are compared by placing 
more and most before the positive. 

Loyal, more loyal,, most loyal ; evident, more evident, most evident, 
W. It was the beautifullest and curiousest thing I ever saw. 

346, Some words are expressed in the superlative de- 
gree by annexing most to them. 

Ex. — Foremost, utmost (outmost), inmost, innermost, hindmost. 

347. More and most can sometimes be used in com- 
paring any word that admits of comparison. 

Ex. — "Afoot more light, a step more true, 

Ne'er from the heath-flower dashed the dew," — Scott- 
When several adjectives come together, of which some are prop- 
erly compared by er and est, and others by more and most, the smaller 
■ are generally placed first, and all are compared as one, by more and 
most ; as, " The more nice and elegant parts." — Johnson. M Homer's 
imagination was by far the most rich and copious" — Pope. 

, 348» More, most, less, and least, when used to compare other 
words, are usually parsed separately, and as adverbs. 

It does not, however, seem to us improper, to parse the whole phrase as one word. 

349« Those adjectives which can not be compared by 
means of a general rule, are said to be irregular. 



ADJECTIVES. 



113 



Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 
Good, better, best. 



worst 



Bad, 


) 




111, 




worse, 


Evil, 


) 




Much, 
Many, 


> 


more, 


Little, 




less, 


Fore, 




former, 


Hind, 




hinder, 


Far, 




farther, 



most. 

least. 
< foremost, 
t first 

hindmost.* 

farthest. 

furthest. 



Positive. Comparative. Superlative, 
(Up,) upper, uppermost. 
f inmost, 
inner > '(innermost. 

f outmost, 
outer ' ) utmost, 
(utter,) Cllttermost> 

( nearest, 
1 next. 
I later, ( latest, 
1 latter, (. last. 
( older, ( oldest, 
( elder, 1 eldest. 



(In,) 

(Out,) 

Near, 

Late 

Old, 



nearer, 



(Forth,) further, 

Elder and eldest are applied to persons only ; older and oldest, to 
persons or things. Later and latest refer to time ; latter and last 9 
generally to order in place. 

Lesser is sometimes used for less ; as, a Lesser Asia " ^ better, " Asia Minor." 

35©» Some irregular adjectives have no positive. 

Ex. — Nether, nethermost ; under, undermost ; hither, hithermost. 

351, Some irregular adjectives have no comparative. 
Top, topmost ; head, headmost ; southern, southernmost. 

352, Some irregular adjectives have neither positive 
nor superlative. 

Ex. — Minor, major, junior, senior, interior, exterior, anterior, 
posterior, superior, inferior, prior, ulterior. — See p. 214. 

353, Most compound adjectives are compared by va^ 
lying only the descriptive word, and in the usual way. 

Ex. — Long-headed, longer-headed, longest-headed. 
Good-natured, better-natured, best-natured. 



Adjectives that have Number. 

354» Some adjectives have number. 
Ex. — This, these ; that, those ; few ; many. 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

355. One, each, every, either, neither, many a, this, that % 
another, much, all (the whole), and whole (all the), are 
singular. 

Ex. — " Every creature loves its like." 

" Neither combatant recovered from his wounds." 

" Every four years make an Olympiad." — Lempriere. 

Sometimes, as in this last example, the adjective relates to an aggregate of objects. 

356. The numerals above one, and the words these, 
those, all (number), few, several, many, divers, and sun- 
dry, are plural. 

357. Adjectives that imply number, must agree in this 
respect with the substantives to which they belong. 

Ex. — Four feet ; not, four foot. " That hind of trees " ; or, " Trees 
of that kind " ; not, " Those kind of trees." 

W. I never liked those sort of bonnets. Three cord of wood. 



358. The substantive to which the adjective belongs, 
is sometimes understood. 

Ex. — " She is using the new book in stead of the old" [book']. 

359. An adjective sometimes becomes a noun, — 

1. To denote the quality abstractly. 
Ex. — " Burke wrote 'on the beautiful" 

2. To denote some object distinguished by the quality. 
Ex. — "A home on the rolling deep." 

3. To denote a class of persons distinguished by the 
quality. 

Ex. — ■ " Providence rewards the good, and punishes the bad." 

360. Sometimes it is necessary to supply a noun. 

Ex. — " The truly good " [persons]. The adverb truly can modify 
good as an adjective, but not as a noun. " Nearly all [the soldiers] 
were captured." " The tender and helpless " [children]. 



ADJECTIVES. , % 115 

Pronominal and other Definitive Adjectives. 

All 5 number or quantity. " All men." u All the land." [salt ? n 

Any ; indefinite, opposed to none. " Any one may go." u Have you any 

Both ; the two. " Z2ofA Worses are lame." 

Divers ; several or many and different. " Divers philosophers think so." 

Each 5 two or more considered separately. " Z2ac/* glove." " £acA pupil." 

Either ; one or the other of two. " Take either road." 

Else ; besides. " Any one else." " Who else ? " 

Every ; all of many considered separately. " Every hour of the day." 

Few ; a comparatively small number. " Few shall part where many meet." 

Former ; preceding in place or time. " The former rule." "A former 

Latter ; following in place or time. " The latter position." [notice." 

Little ; not much. " Little money." {Little, meaning small, is a descriptive 

Many % a comparatively large number. — See Few. [adjective.) 

Many a ' many considered separately ; to many as every to all. " Many a 

Much : a comparatively large quantity. " Much money." [flower." 

Neither ; not the one nor the other. " Neither of my gloves." 

No ; not any, not a. " No ice." " He is no friend of mine." 

None % no one, no ones. " None is needed." " None are needed." 

One ; a person or thing indefinitely considered, opposed to other. " One 

man or another." 
Other, another ; something different or distinct. " Some other person." 
Own ; possession with emphasis or distinction. " My own book." 
Same ; identity, similarity. " The same boat," " Built of the same stones." 
Several ; more than two and fewer than many. " Several boys." 
Some ; indefinite, and opposed to all or a particular one. *' Some of the 

robbers." w Some one said so." 
Such; the same as something else mentioned or described. " Such a man 

is he." " Such writers as Swift." This adjective is descriptive as 

well as definitive; and it is often a sort of pro-adjective. 
Sundry ; emphatically more than one or two. ■" Sundry foes assailed me." 
That, those ; distant or absent in time or place, the more remote of two, the 

first-mentioned, something indefinitely selected but definitely described. 
This, these $ near or present in time or place, the nearer of two, the last- 

mentioued. — See p. 80. 

" That affair about which we talked yesterday." " This affair 

about which you are now talking." " This chair is better than that." 

" Those pupils who were absent, will please to give their names." 
Very $ equivalent to a compound personal pronoun. " Our very existence." 
What, which; interrogative or responsive " Wluit man." " Which 

man." 
Yon or yonder points out something in sight. " Yonder hill." 
6 



116 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Exercises. 

The adjective, and why ; whether descriptive or definitive, and why ; and to 
what it belongs : — 

The blue sky. The sky is blue. An aspiring man. The 
American flag. The star-powdered galaxy. A modest and 
beautiful woman, with eyes bright, blue, and affectionate. This 
is a broad, deep, clear, and winding river. The night grew 
darker and darker. The apples boiled soft. He is asleep. 
That field has been in cultivation four years. The first car is 
not full, having but one man in it. 

Compare, of the following adjectives, those which can be compared: — 

TVise, studious, near, good, evil, melodious, high, tuneful, 
saucy, eloquent, expressive, lovely, nimble, late, many, much, 
few, little, old, glowing, accomplished, expert, half-finished, full, 
counteifeit, graceful, worthless, bottomless, fundamental, orna- 
mental, vernal, green, sluggish, sunburnt, free, first. 

Mention and spell the three degrees of comparison : •— 

Strong, weak, light, gay, rough, nice, coarse, fierce, white, 
ripe, thin, slim, dim, fit, hot, fat, glad, big, droll, dry, sprightly, 
manly, gentle, noble, idle, discreet, remote, sublime, profound. 

Compare by using less and least : — 

Broad, convenient, confident, oily, troublesome, thick, joyful, 
sorrowful, exorbitant, exact, indulgent, handsome. 

Join suitable adjictircs to each of the following nouns: — 

Moon, field, fountain, trees, garden, horse, willow, man, wo- 
man, pen, ink, day, wood, boys, thoughts, feelings, conduct. 



QUESTIONS FOB REVIEW. 



1. What is a Part of Speech *? . IF 157 

2. How many and what are the parts 

of speech? 158 

3. What is a Noun 1 Give examples. 159 
4- Into what classes are nouns di- 
vided? 163 

6. What is a proppr noun ? . . . 164 

6. When does a proper uoun become a 

common noun? . . . 165 

7. What is a common noun ? . . 166 
6. When does a common noun become 

a proper nuuu? . . , 167 



9. What smaller clashes do the com- 
mon nouns include? 

10. What is a collective noun? . . 168 

11. What is an abstract noun? . 169 

12. What is a verbal or participial 

noun? 170 

13. What is a Pronoun 1 171 

14. What is the antecedent of a pro- 

noun ? 173 

15. Into what classes are pronouns di- 

vided ? 177 

16. What is a personal pronoun ? . 178 



QUESTIONS. 



117 



193 
196 

197 

196 
199 

200 

201 

202;^* 

203 5 

204 £ 



17. Mention the chief personal pro- 

nouns? 

18. What is said of you, yours, etc. ? „ 

19. What is said of thou, thy, thine, 

etc ? 

20. Of ours, yours, etc.? 

21. Of it? .... 184, 

22. What is a compound personal pro- 

noun ? ... 

23. How are these pronouns used? 

24. What is a relative pronoun? 
25- Mention the relative pronouns ? 

26. To what is the relative who applied ? 

27. To what is the relative which ap- 

plied ? 

28- How is the relative what used? 

29. When is the relative that preferred 

to who or which? . . 

30. When is as a relative pronoun? 

31. What is a compound relative pro- 

noun ?..... 

32. What is an interrogative pronoun ? 

33. Mention the interrogative pronouns. 

34. What is said of the interrogative 

who ?...... 

35. What is said of the interrogative 

which? ..... 

36. What is said of the interrogative 

what ? 

37. What is a responsive or an indirect 

interrogative pronoun? . 
38 What is an adjective pronoun ? 

39. Into what classes are the adjective 

pronouns divided ? . 

40. What is said of the distributive pro- 

nouns? ... . 

41. Of the demonstrative pronouns ? 

42. Of the indefinite pronouns ? . 

43. Of the reciprocal pronouns? 

44. How should either, neither, each 

other, and one another be used ? . 

45. How should this and that be used? 
48. What properties have nouns and 

pronouns ? 

47. What is Gender ? • 

48. How many genders are there, and 

what are they called ? 

49. When is a noun or pronoun of the 

masculine gender ? 

50. Of the feminine gender ? . 

51. Of the common gender ? . 

52. Of the neuter gender? 

53. What is said of personified objects? 223 

54. When is the masculine gender pre- 

ferred? 224 

55. When is the feminine gender pre- 

ferred ? . . . 

56. What is said of the gender of col- 

lective nouns? 

57. How many methods are there of dis- 

tinguishing the two sexes ? 

58. What is the first method ? 

examples. 

59. What is the second method? 

examples. 
60.- What is the third method? 
examples. 



61. 
179 62. 
180, 

■63. 
181 ' 
182 64. 
185.65. 

MB* 

187,°'- 

l!. 68 - 
190 ,69. 



205 

206 
207 
20S 
209 

21 f 

21. 

212 
214 



81. 



84. 



215 1 

216 
217 
21S 
219 



S6. 



Give 
Give 



Give 



225 
226 
227 



SS. 



What is Person ? • ■ . .228 

How many persons in grammar, 
and what are they called ? . 229 

When is a noun or pronoun of the 
first person? 230 

Of the second person? . . 231 

Of the third person ? 232 

What is Number * ... 234 

How many numbers in grammar, 
and what are they called ? . . 235 

When is a noun or pronoun of the 
singular number? . . . 236 

When is a noun or pronoun of the 
plural number? .... 237 

When is a proper noun made plu- 
ral ? 238 

What nouns are generally used in 
the singular numb< r only ? . . 239 

What exception is mentioned? . 240 

Mention some nouns that are gen- 
erally used only in the plural 
number 241 

Mentioii some nouns that have the 
same form for either number . 243 

What is said, in regard to number, 
of pair, dozen, fish, fowl, trout, 
salmon, and- similar words? 244. etc. 

AVhen is a collective noun singular? 245 

When is a collective noun plural 1 246, '7 

How are most nouns made plural? 248 

To what nouns is es added ? . . 249 

How are proper nouns made plural ? 
Give examples .... 251 

What is the plural of foot, a part 
of the body ; and of Foot, a man'3 
name ? 

Give the plural of beef, half loaf, 
wife, and wolf; and tell us what 
is said of such words. . . . 252 

Give the plural of man, tooth, and 
mouse ; and tell us what is said of 
such words .... 253 

Give the plurals of brother, die, 
genius, and penny: ami tell us 
what is said of such worJs . . 254 

How are most compound words 
made plural ? . . . . 255 

What exceptions ? . . 257,258 

How is a n«me that begins with 
the title Mr., Miss, or Dr. made 

, plural ? 259 

"What is said of the title Mrs. ? . 260 

What is said of the plural of foreign 
words ? . . . . . . 261 

What is said of the ending a ? Give 
examples. 

Of the ending us ? Give examples. 

Of the ending um or on ? Examples. 

Of the ending is ? Examples. 

Of the ending x or ex ? Examples. 

How are letters and figures made 
plural? 262 

What is said of the editorial we ? 263 

What is said of you, your, etc., in 
regard to number ? . . 264 

What is said of relative and other 
pronouns, in regard to number? 267 



118 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



136 
137. 



99. Wh.it is Case? 1 127, 

100. How many cases are there, and il28. 

what are they called ? . . . 269 ; 129. 

101. When is a noun or pronoun in the 1 130. 

nominative case ? . . 270 271 131. 

102. In what different ways is a noun 

or pronoun used independent- [132. 
ly? 272! 

103. When is a noun or pronoun used 1 133. 

absolutely? 273 134. 

135. 

104. When is a noun or pronoun in the 

possessive case ? . 274 

105. How is the possessive case regular- 

ly formed ? 275 

106. When is the apostrophe only added, 133 

or when is the possessive s omit- 1 39 

ted? .... 276, 277|i4o! 

107. In what other ways can possession 

be expressed? . . . . 278 

108. How is a compound or complex 

term expressed in the possessive 
case? 280 

109. What is said of a pair or series of 

terms implying common posses- 
sion? 281 

110. What is said of a pair or series of 

terms not implying common pos- 
session? 282 

111. When is a noun or pronoun in the 

objective case ? 283 

112. When is a noun or pronoun in the 

same case as another ? . . 286 

113. What may the subordinate term 

be? . ... 287 

114. What two kinds of construction 

under same case? . . . 288 

115. When is the explanatory term 

predicated of the other? . 289 

116. What is said of the connecting 

verb? - . 290 

117. When are the two terms in apposi- 

tion? 291 

118. Must the terms agree in anything 

else than case? . . . 295 

119. In what different ways are words 

in apposition sometimes applied 
to the same objects ? . . 296 

120. In what two cases are compound 

personal pronouns used ? . . 298 

121. What is said of w/10, what', which, 

and that, in regard to case and 
declension? .... 300 

122. When may what have two cases ? . 301 

123. When does what have but one 

case? ...... 303 

124. How are one, other, and another 

declined ? 304 

125. What is it, to decline a noun or 

pronoun? .... 305 

126. Decline merchant, child, I, thou, 

you, he, she, one, it, who, and 
himself. 



What is an Article? • . • 306 

How are the articles classified? 
How is the used ? 307 

How is a or an used ? . . . 310 
Does a or an mean one, or more 

than one? .... 311 
Why are a and an both considered 

the same word ? . . . . 312 
When should a be used? . . 313 
When should an be used ? . . 314 
When should no article be used? . 315 



141. 
142. 
143. 
144. 
145. 
146. 

147. 

148. 

149. 
150. 

151. 

152 
153 

154. 

155. 
156. 

157. 

158, 

159 

160, 
161 



What is an Adjective? . '316 
Into what two chief classes are ad- 
jectives divided ? ... 318 
What is a descriptive adjective ? . 319 
What is a definitive adjective ? 320 
Into what smaller classes are ad- 
jectives divided ? . . . . 321 
What is a common adjective ? . 322 
What is a proper adjective ? . . 323 
What is a participial adjective ? 324 
What is a compound adjective ? . 325 
What is a numeral adjective ? . 326 
Into what classes are numerals di- 
vided ? 327 

What are pronominal adjectives ? 328 
Into what classes are they di- 
vided? 329 

What is comparison in grammar ? 330 
How many degrees of comparison, 

and what are they called ? . . 331 
When is an adjective in the posi- 
tive degree? 332 

When, in the comparative degree ? 333 
When, in the superlative degree ? 334 
What is said of the comparative 

degree? 335 

Of the superlative degree ? . . 336 
When can an adjective not be 

compared? What exception ? 337, 338 
To express degrees below the posi- 
tive, how are adjectives compared? 341 
To express degrees above the posi- 
tive, how are adjectives compared? 342 
When are the endings er and est 

preferred? . . . 343,344 
When are more and most preferred ? 315 
Compare good, bad, much, many, 
little, hind, far, in, near, late, 
old ; and tell us what is said of 
su -h words. . . . 346, 349 
Do adjectives have number? . . 354 
Mention some adjectives that are 
singular, and some that arc plu- 
ral? .... 355,356 
What is said of adjectives in regard 
to their agreement with substan- 
tives in number ? 357 
Is the substantive to which the ad- 
jective relates, always expressed ? 358 
When does an adjective become a 

noun? 359 

Define each, every, either, neither, 
this, and that. 



VERBS. 



119 



VERBS. 

361. A Verb is a word used to express the act or 
state of a subject. 

Ex. — The horse ran. The rose blooms. He was elected, 

362. Frequently, a verb consists of two or more 
words. 

Ex. — They might have been captured. He was sent for. 

363. Sometimes words from other parts of speech are 
made verbs. 

Ex. — "We have tried to better our condition." — Shakespeare, 
" This out-Herods Herod ! " — Id. " I '11 fortune-tell you ! " — Id. 
For exercises, see Part I.; p. 22, for instance. 



Classification. 



Verbs. 



In Form. 
Regular, 
Irregular. 

In Syntax. 

As related to Subjects. 
Finite or Pred- 
icate Verbs. 

Not Finite. Prop- 
Participles, erties. 
Infinitives. 

As related to Objects. 
Transitive, 
Intransitive. 

A3 related to one an- 
other. 

Principal, 

Auxiliary. 



f Active, 
v oice. i * 

I .Passive. 



Mood. 



Tense. . 



' Indicative, 
Subjunctive, 
Potential, 
Imperative. 

r Present, 
Present-perfect ,* 
Past, 

Past-perfect ; 
Future, 
Future-perfect. 



Per- f FIrSt ' 
\ Second, 

S ° N - 1 Third. 

Num- f Singular, 
ber. I Plural. 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

CLASSES OF VERBS. 
Regular and Irregular. 

364. Verbs are divided, according to their form, into 
regular and irregular. 

365. A Regular Verb is a verb that takes the ending 
ed, to form its past tense and its perfect participle. 

Ex. — Present, plant ; past, planted ; perfect participle, planted. 

Carry, carri ed, carri ed ; rebel', rebel led, rebel led. 
"While studying this section, review the Rules for Spelling, pp. 50 and 51. 

366. An Irregular Verb is a verb that does not take 
the ending ed, to form its past tense and its perfect parti- 
ciple. 

Ex. — Sweep, sivept, swept ; cling, clung, clung ; cut, cut, cut. 

367. The Principal Parts of a verb are the present 

tense, the past tense, the present participle, and the perfect 

participle. 

These are called the principal parts, because by means of them 
and the auxiliary verbs all the other parts of the verb can be formed. 

368. The Present Tense is the simplest form of the 
verb; as, go. 

369. The Past Tense is the simplest form that ex- 
presses a past fact ; as, went. 

370. The Present Participle is that form which ends 
always with ing ; as, go-ing. It is therefore so well 
known that it hardly needs mentioning. 

371. The Perfect Participle is that form which 
makes sense with the word having before it ; as, gone, 
(having gone). 

In general, only the simple participles are used in compound forms. — See p. 158. 



VERBS. 



121 



The present tense and the past tense which we have just men- 
tioned, are the present indicative or infinitive and the past indicative. 
For the sake of brevity, they are generally called simply the present 
and the jpast ; and the past is sometimes called the prel'erit. 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS, 

The following are the irregular verbs, with their principal parts. Having 
learned them, the pupil will also know the principal parts of the remain- 
ing verbs, for these are regular. He must not infer, however, from the 
word irregular, that the verbs so called are a mere straggling offshoot from 
the language ; for they are really the very core or pith of it. 

The Two Past Forms Different.* 



Present. Past, or Pret. Per/. Participl 

Arise, arose, arisen.f 

awaked, 

Awake, awoke, r., i - 

' ' ' awoke.* 

Be or am, was, 

Bear bore, 

(bring forth),] dave 

Bear bore, 

(carry), 



been, 
born, 
borne. 



Beat, beat, 



beaten, 
beat. 



Become, became, become. 
Befall, befell, befallen. 

begot, 

begat,* 

began, 

bid, 

bade, 



Beget, 
Begin, 
Bid, 



begotten, 

begot. 

begun. 

bid, 

bidden. 



Present. Past, or Pret. Per/. Participle* 

bitten, 
bit, 



Bite, 

Blow, 

Break, 



blew, 

broke, 

brake,* 



Chide, chid, 

Choose, chose, 
Cleave cleaved, 



(adhere), 

Cleave 

(split), 

Come, 
Crow, 



clave,* 

cleft, 

clove, 

clave,* 

came, 

crowed, 

crew, 



bit. 

blown. 

broken, 

broke.* 

chidden, 

chid. 

chosen. 

cleaved. 

cleft, 
cloven, 
cleaved, 
come. 

crowed. 



* In general, only those irregular verbs are liable to be used improperly, of which the 
past tense and the perfect participle are different in form. These verbs have there- 
fore been given first, and separate from the rest, that they may be learned perfectly. R. 
denotes that the regular form may also be used in stead of the other. * denotes that the 1 
form under it is seldom used, being either ancient, poetic, or of late introduction. The 
form supposed to be of the best present usage, is placed first. The second form of some 
verbs is preferable when applied in a certain way, as, "freighted with spices and silks," 
"fraught with mischief' 1 •, H thunderstruck,'' " sorrow-stricken." — Commit to memory 
the unmarked forms only. 

1 The pupil may also mention the present participle just before he mentions the perfect 



122 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present, Past, or Pret. Per/. Participle. 

Dare durst, 

(venture), flared, 

(Dare, to challenge; regular.) 

Do did, done. 

(prin. verb.), 

Draw, drew, drawn. 

drunk, 
Drink, drank, drank> » 

Drive, drove, driver 

ate, eaten, 

eat, eat.* 

Fall, fell, fallen. . 

Fly, flew, flown. 

Forbear, forbore, forborne. 

forgotten, 
Forget, forgot, forgot 

Forsake, forsook, forsaken. 

Freeze, froze, frozen. 

freighted, 
Freight, freighted, fraught 

got, 

Get ' g ot > gotten. 

Give, ' gave, given. 

Go, went, gone. 

Grave, graved, graven, R. 

Grow, grew, growR. 

heaved, heaved, 

Heave, , , • * 

hove, hoven.* 

Hew, hewed, hewn, r. 

hidden, 
Hide, hid, h[ ^ 

held, 
Hold, held, hdden . 

Know, knew, known. 



Present. Past, or Pret. Per/. Participle. 

Lade laded, laden, r. 

(load), 

Lie lay, lain, 

(repose), 

(Lie, to speak falsely ; regular.) 

Mow, mowed, mown, r» 

proved, 
Prove, proved, * 

7 r 7 proven.*. 



Rend, 


rent, 


rent, r.* 


Ride, 


rode, 


rode, 
ridden. 


Ring, 


rang, 
rung, 


rung. 


Rise, 


rose, 


risen. 


Rive, 


rived, 


riven, r.* 


Run, 


ran, 


run. 


Saw, 


sawed, 


sawn, r. 


See, 


saw, 


seen. 


Seethe, 


seethed, 
sod,* 


seethed, 
sodden. 


Shake, 


shook, 


shaken. 


Shape, 


shaped, 


shaped, 
shapen.* 



Shave, shaved, ^^ 

sheared, 
Shear, shore * m ' R# 

Show, showed, shown, r. 

shrunk, shrunk, 

9 shrank, shrunken.' 

Slay, slew, slain. 

slidden, 
Slide, slid, R „ 8lidE> 

smitten, 
Smite ; smote, gmit * 



VERBS. 



123 



Present. Past, or Pret. 
sung, 

sang, 

sunk, 

sank, 

Sow sowed, 

(to scatter seed), 

spoke, 



Sing, 
Sink, 



Speak, 

Spin, 

Spit, 



spake,* 
spun, 
span,* 
spit, 
spat,* 
( Spit, to pierce with a 
sprung, 



Spring, 

Steal, 

Stride, 



sprang, 
stole, 
strode, 
strid, 



Strike, struck, 



Per/. Participle. 

sung. 

sunk, 
sown, r. 

spoken. 

spun. 

spit, 

spitten.* 
spit; regular.) 

sprung. 

stolen. 

stridden, 

strid. 

struck, 

stricken. 



Present. Past, or Pret. Per/. Participle. 

Strive, strove,R.,* striven,R.* 
strowed, strown, r. 
swore, 



Strow r , 

Swear, 

Swell, 

Swim, 

Take, 
Tear, 

Thrive, 

Throw, 

Tread, 

Wax 

{grow). 

Wear, 

Weave, 

Write, 



# 



sworn. 



sw r are, 

swelled, swollen, r. 

swam, 

swaim. 
swum, 

took, taken. 

tore, torn. 

thrived, thrived, 

throve, thriven. 



threw, 
trod, 

waxed, 
wore, 



thrown, 
trodden, 
trod, 
waxed, 
waxen.* 
worn. 
wove, r.,* woven, vJ 
w r rote, written. 



The Two Past or the Three Forms Alike. 

Present. 



Present. Past, or Pret. Per/. Participle. 

Abide, abode, abode. 
Behold, beheld, beheld. 
Belay, belaid, r., belaid, R. 
Bend, bent, r., bent, r. 
Bereave, bereft, r., bereft, r. 
Beseech, besought, besought 

bet, r., bet, r. 

betided, betided, 

betid* 

bound, 

bled, 



Bet, 

Betide, 

Bind, 
Bleed, 



betid.* 
bound, 
bled. 



Blend, 



blended, blended, 
blent,* blent* 



Bless, 

Breed, 
Bring, 
Build, 

Burn, 

Burst, 

Buy, 

Cast, 

Catch, 

Cling, 



Past, or Pret. Per/. Participle 

blessed, blessed, 
blest, blest, 
bred, bred, 

brought, brought, 
built, r.,* built, r.* 
burned, burned, 



burnt, * 
burst, 
bought 
cast, 



burnt, 
burst, 
bought, 
cast. 



caught,R.,* caught^.* 
clung, clung. 



124 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present. Past, or Pret. Per/. Participle. 


Present. Pasty or Pret. 


Per/. Participle, 




clothed, 


clothed, 




leaned, 


leaned, 


Clothe, 


clad, 


clad. 


Lean, 


leant, 


leant. 


Cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


Leap, 


leaped, 


leaped, 


Creep, 


crept, 


crept. 


leapt,* 


leapt* 


Cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


Learn, 


learned, 


learned, 


Deal, 


dealt, 


dealt. 


learnt, 


learnt. 


Dig, 


dug, R., 


dug, R. 


Leave, 


left, 


left. 


Dwell, 


dwelt, r., 


dwelt, r. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lent. 


Dream, 


dreamed 


dreamed, 


Let, 


let, 


let. 


dreamt, 


dreamt. 


Light, 


lighted, 


lighted, 


Dress, 


dressed, 


dressed, 


lit, 


lit. 


drest,* 


drest.* 


Lose, 


lost, 


lost. 


Feed, 


fed, 


fed. 


Make, 


made, 


made. 


Feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


Mean, 


meant, 


meant. 


Fight, 


fought, 


fought. 


Meet, 


met, 


met. 


Find, 


found, 


found. 


Pass, 


passed, 


passed, 


Flee, 


fled, 


fled. 


past,* 


past. b 


Fling, 


flung, 


flung. 


Pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


Gild, 


gilded, 


gilded, 


Pen 


penned, 


penned, 


gilt, 


gilt. 


(fence in). 


pent, 


pent. 


Gird, 


girt, R., 


girt,R. 


( Pen, to write ; regular 


.) 


Grind, 


ground, 


ground. 




pleaded, 


pleaded, 


Hang, 


hung, R., 


hung, R. a 


Plead, 


plead,* 


plead,* 


Have 


had, 


had. 




pled,* 


pled.* 


(priii; verb/ 


, 




Put, 


put, 


put. 


Hear, 


heard, 


heard. 


Quit, 


quit, r., 


quit, r. 


Hit 


hit, 


hit. 




rapped, 


rapped, 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurt. 


Rap, 


rapt, 
read, 


rapt, 
read. 


Keep, 


kept, 


kept. 


Read, 


Kneel, 


knelt, R., 


knelt, r. 


Reave,* 


reft, 


reft. 


Knit, 


knit, r., 


knit, R. 


Rid, 


rid, 


rid. 


Lay, 


laid, 


laid. 


Say, 


said, 


said. 


Lead, 


led, 


led. 


Seek, 


sought, 


sought. 



(a.) Hang, hanged, hanged ; to suspend by the neck with intent to kilt ; hut the 
distinction is not always observed, (b ) Past is used as an adjective or as a noun, 
(c ) Rap, rapt, rapt ; to seize with rapture. 



VERBS. 



125 



Present. Past, or Pret. Per/. Participle 

Sell, sold, sold. 

Send, sent, sent. 

Set, set, set. 

Shed, shed, shed. 

Shine, shone, R.,* shone, R.* 

Shoe, shod, shod. 

Shoot, shot, shot. 

Shred, shred, shred. 

Shut, shut, shut. 

Sit, sat, sat. 

Sleep, slept, slept. 

Sling, slung, slung. 

Slink, slunk, slunk. 

Slit, slit, R.,* slit, R. 

Smell, smelt, r., smelt, r. 

Speed, sped, r.,* sped, r.* 

spelled, spelled, 

spelt,- spelt. 

Spend, spent, spent. 

Spill, spilt, R., spilt, R. 

Split, split, R.,* split, R. 

spoiled, spoiled, 

1 l ' spoilt,* spoilt.* 

Spread, spread, spread. 

Stay, staid, r., staid, R. d 

String, strung, strung, R. € 

Stave, stove, r., stove, r. 

Stand, stood, -stood. 

Stick, stuck, stuck. 

Sting, stung, stung. 

sweat, r., sweat, r. 

swet, swet. 

Sweep, swept, swept. 



Spell, 



Sweat 



wept, 
wet, r.* 
won. 
wound. 



Present. Past, or Pret. Per/. Participle. 

Swing, swung, swung, 

taught, taught, 

told, told, 

thought, thought, 

thrust, thrust, 

waked, waked, 

woke,* woke.* 

wedded, wedded, 

wed,* wed.* 
wept, 
wet, r.,* 
won, 
wound, 

worked, worked, 

wrought, wrought, 

wrung, wrung. 

Beware, (wanting,) (wanting.) 
Can, could, " 

Do(auxil'y),did, « 

Have, " had, " • 

May, might, 

Must, must, 

Ought, ought, 

(wanting,) quoth, 
Shall, should, 

Will, " would, 
(Will, wish, bequeath; regular.) 

Wit, 

wot,* ' 

wist,* 
wote.* . 



Teach, 
Tell, 
Think, 
Thrust, 

Wake, 

Wed, 

Weep, 
W~et, 

Win, 
Wind, 

Work, 
Wring, 



a 

u 
a 

a 



Wot* 

Wis,* 
Weet,* . 

Most of the verbs that have no 
participles, are auxiliary verbs. 

(cZ.) Stay, stayed, stayed ; to cause to stop, (e.) Stringed instruments. 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR: 

372. A derivative verb generally forms its principal 
parts in the same way as the primitive verb. 

Ex.- — Mistake, mistook, mistaken; undergo, underwent, undergone. 

373. A Redundant Verb is a verb that has more 
than one form for some of its principal parts. 

Ex. — Kneel; knelt, kneeled ; knelt, kneeled. 

374. A Defective Verb is one that has not all the 
parts which belong to a complete verb. 

The defective verbs are most of the auxiliaries, and the following r — - 

Beware; from be and ware (wary). It has no participles. 

Methinks 9 1 think, methought, / thought ; meseems, to vie it seems ; 
meseemed, to me it seemed. These words are anomalous and poetical. 

Ought is an old preterit of owe. It is in the present tense when it is 
followed by the present infinitive; as, " I ought to go " : and in the past 
tense when followed by the perfect infinitive ; as, "I ought to have gone." 

Quoth is sometimes used, in quaint or humorous language, for said; 
as, " ' Not 1/ quoth Sancho." 

Wit 9 in the sense of know, is yet used in the phrase to wit — namely. 
The other forms are nearly obsolete. 

Give the principal parts ; and tell whether the verb is regular or irregular : — 

Flow, fly, flee, sow, grow, sin, win, spin, skim, swim, heal, 
steal, fling, bring, spread, dread, fold, hold, uphold, close, lose, 
loose, blind, find, fine, reel, feel, lend, loan, need, feed, land, 
stand, heat, eat, free, see, play, slay, may, call, fall, fell, bind, 
bound, come, welcome, hive, strive, live, give, rise, raise, tell, 
toll, lie, lay, seat, set, sit. 

Finite and Not Finite* 

375. Verbs are divided, according to their relation to 
subjects, into finite and not finite. 

376. A Finite Verb is a verb that predicates the act 
or state of its subject. 

Ex. — The plant grows. John has arrived. I am alone. 

377. A verb that is not finite, does not predicate the 
act or state of its subject. 

" The plant growing " " John having arrived." " For me to be alone/' 

Observe the difference between these phrases and the preceding sentences, 7 376. 



VERBS. 127 

378. Verbs that are not finite, may be divided into 
two classes ; Infinitives and Participles. — See p. 158. 

Transitive and Intransitive. 
379t Verbs are divided, according to their relation to 
objects, into transitive and intransitive. 

380. A Transitive Verb is a verb that has an object, 
or requires one to complete the sense. 

Ex. — "The lightning struck the oak" (Struck what?) 

"I knew him well, and every truant knew" [him]. — Goldsmith. 

Transitive verbs are used in two forms. — See Voice, p. 13. 

381. An Intransitive Verb is a verb that does not 
have or require an object. 

Ex. — Birds fly. Roses bloom. Gamblers cheat. 

382. An intransitive verb that does not imply action or 
exertion, is sometimes called a neuter verb. 

Ex. — The ocean is deep. The book lies on the table. 

383. The same word is sometimes used as a transitive 
verb, and sometimes as an intransitive. 

" The prince succeeds the king." " In every project he succeeds." 

384. A verb usually transitive may become intran- 
sitive, when the chief design is to set forth the act, and 
to leave the object unknown or indefinite. 

Ex. — u She reads well." " He rides out every day." 
Observe that the design is to show how she reads, not what she reads. 

385. A verb usually intransitive may become tran- 
sitive, — 

1. When it is used in a causative sense. 

Ex. — " To march armies " ; i. e., to cause them to march. 

2. When the object is like the verb in meaning. 
Ex. — " To live a righteous life." " To die a miserable death. 1 * 

3. In certain poetical expressions. 

Ex. — " And eyes looked \ love to eyes that spake again." — Byron. 
" The lightnings flashed a brighter curve." — Thomson. 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. In certain idiomatic expressions. 

Ex. — "I laughed \ myself hoarse." " He slept \ himself weary" 
In such expressions the verb has both a causative and a reflexive sense. 

386. Sometimes the object is combined with the verb 
so closely as to make in sense almost a part of it. 

Ex. — To take care of; to lay hold of; to bethink oneself. 

A similar remark applies sometimes to other words used with verbs. 

387. Some verbs, mostly of asking or teaching, are 
followed by two objects, each of which they can govern. 

Ex. — "She taught me grammar" ; i. e., she taught me, and she 
taught grammar. In parsing, however, it is probably better to sup- 
ply a preposition ; as, " She taught grammar to me " ; or, u She taught 
me in grammar." 

388. Some verbs are followed by two objects, of which 
one is governed by the preposition to or for Understood, 
and the other by the verb. 

Ex. — u She gave me a book" ; i. e., she gave a book to me. 

The object governed by the verb is called the direct object ; the 
object governed by the preposition understood, is called the indirect 
object. 

389. Some verbs are followed by two objects that are 
in apposition. 

Ex. — " They made Mm captain." — See f 292 « 

Principal and Auxiliary. 

390. Verbs are divided, in regard to the chief mode 
of combining them, into principal and auxiliary. 

391* A Principal Verb is a verb that expresses by 
itself the act or state, or the chief part of it. 

" He studies." " He may have studied." Study is a principal verb. 

392. An Auxiliary Verb helps other verbs to ex- 
press their grammatical properties. 

Ex. — " He ivas captured." (Voice.) " He can learn." (Mood.) 

Eor an explanation of auxiliary verbs, see p. 148. 



VERBS. 129 

PROPERTIES OF VERBS. 
393. Verbs have voice, mood, tense, person, and number. 

VOICE. 

394* Voice is that property of transitive verbs which 
shows whether the subject does, or receives, the act. 

395. There are two voices ; the active and the passive. 

396. A transitive verb is in the active voice, when it 
represents its subject as acting. "He watches." 

397. A transitive verb is in the passive voice, when it 
represents its subject as acted upon. a He is watched." 

Most transitive verbs imply action ; but a few — as, resemble, own, 
and have — do not imply action. Such a verb is in the active mice, 
when it relates to an object; and in the passive, when it has the 
object for its subject. 

398. Voice is a property that belongs to transitive 
verbs only. 

399. A few intransitive verbs are sometimes used in 
the passive form. 

This is a French idiom, and the verbs are not passive.. 
Ex. — u He is fallen" "She is gone." "The melancholy days 
are come? 1 Equivalent to has fallen, has gone, have come. 

The passive form generally differs from the active by an elegant shade of meaning : in 
the latter, the mind dwells on the act •, in the former, on the state of things after the act. 

400. A few intransitive verbs can be made passive, 
when combined with a preposition or other word. 

The whole phrase should be called a compound passive verb. 
Ex. — " Had Monmouth really been sent for ?" — Macaulay. 
" Colonel Butler ivas accordingly written to." — Irving. 
So, "My claim was lost sight of" ; i. e., disregarded. 
The modifying word is so closely blended in sense with the verb, 
that it seems to make a part of it. 

6* i 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

/ 

401 • Transitive verbs are sometimes passive, even in 
the active form. 

Ex. — " This field ploughs well."' " Your poem reads smoothly." 
" Wheat sells, is selling, is sold for a dollar a bushel." " The fortress 
teas building" — Irving. And probably, " An ax to grind" 

Most such verbs denote merely the capacity to receive the act in 
the way specified ; and when this is the meaning, some grammarians 
call them simply intransitive verbs. 

402. The object of the active verb is made the subject 
of the passive. 

We caught these partridges. These partridges were caught by us* 
W. We were shown some very curious fossil remains. 
A verb is generally made passive by combining the corresponding 
tense or part of the verb be with the perfect participle of a transitive 
verb ; as, was, was broken. " The pitcher was broken" 

403. Sometimes the object of the preposition is made 
the subject of the passive verb. 

Ex. — " If you wear that coat, people will laugh at you." 
".If you wear that coat, you will be laughed aC 
" He was smiled on \_favored~\ by fortune- * 

404. We may use, at pleasure, either the active voice or 
the passive. The following are the chief advantages of having 
both forms : — 

1. To enrich language in variety of expression. 
Ex. — Snow protects plants. Plants are protected by snow. 

2. To avoid the confusion which is apt to arise from 
introducing different subjects into the same sentence. 

Ex. — "I went to the river, was ferried over, and saw the proces- 
sion." Make ivas ferried active by introducing another subject, and 
you can easily notice the bad effect. 

3. In the active voice, to make the doer and the act 
prominent. 

Ex. — Washington defended our country. 

4. In the passive voice, to make the result and the 
act prominent, or to avoid mentioning the doer. 



VERBS. 131 

Ex. — " The work was done, nevertheless." " My watch was 
stolen" I may not know, or may not wish to say, who stole it. " The 
ship was stranded." It might be very tedious to give the causes : to 
state the result is sufficient. 

MOOD. 

405. Mood is the manner in which the act or state is 
expressed with reference to its subject. 

The act or state can be referred to the subject, as something real ; as something 
merely supposed ; as something real or supposed, and modified by a relation ; as some- 
thing commanded; or as something subordinate, or merely assumed and not predicated 

406. There are four moods ; the indicative, the sub- 
junctive, the potential, and the imperative. 

Most grammarians call the infinitive the infinitive mood, thus making five 
mods •, and some call the participle the participial mood, thus making six 
models. Infinitives and participles may be considered a mood; but it seems 
to us that they are sufficiently distinguished by being called infinitives and 
participles. 

Indicative Mood. 
The Indicative Mood denotes what is real. 

407. A verb in the indicative mood expresses an actual 
occurrence or fact. 

Ex. — I went. it snows. " Moses was God's first pen." — Bacon. 

408. The indicative mood can be used interrogatively. 
Ex. — " ' Is he in the army, then ? ' said my uncle Toby." — Sterne. 

Flere an inquiry is made about the fact. 

409. A doubt, condition, or inference, assumed as a 
fact or expressed in indicative time, must also be in the 
indicative mood. 

Ex. — If I am deceived, I am ruined. 

If I was deceived, I did not know it. 
This will produce a quarrel, when he returns. 
W. Though he be helpless now, he will not remain so. See p. 160. 
Which phrase, if it mean any thing, means paper-money. — 

Atlantic Monthly. 
If he have a rival, it is Mrs. Barbauld. — Coleridge. 
She doubted whether this were not all delusion. — Irving. 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Subjunctive Mood. 
The Subjunctive Mood denotes what is ideal. 
410. A verb in the subjunctive mood may express, — 

1. A future contingency. 

Ex. — "If I go, I shall go alone." " Beware lest thou fail." 
W. If any member absents himself, he shall pay a dollar. 

He will maintain his suit, though it costs him his whole estate. 

2. A mere wish or supposition. 

" O had I the wings of a dove ! " But I have not. 
" O that I were as when my mother pressed me to her bosom, and 
sung the warlike deeds of the Mohawks ! " But I am not. 
" Were I in your condition, I would remain." 
" Had I been in your condition, I would have remained." 
W. O that I was at home. I wish I was at home. 

He talked to me as if I was a widow. 

Was there not another reason, I would object. — P. Henry. 

3. A mere conclusion, conception, or consequence. 

Ex. — " It were useless to resist." (Would be.) 

" He had need all circumspection." — Milton, 

That is, he would have need of all circumspection. 

" If it were done when it is done, then 't were well 

It were done quickly." — Shakespeare. 
" Had more time been given, my translation had been bet- 
ter." — Dryden. 
Colloquialism : " I had much rather be myself the slave." — Cowper. 
To the pure subjunctives of conclusion, good writers now gen- 
erally prefer the subjunctive potential forms; as, would be, would 
have been, should be, etc. 

411. The subjunctive mood, being mental, is generally 
applied to the suppositions and conclusions in reasoning 
and wishing. 

" Were half the wealth bestowed on camps and courts 
Given to redeem the human mind from error, 
There were no need of arsenals and forts." — Longfellow. 
Since reasoning always implies two parts, a premise and a conclusion, — 



VERBS. 183 

A clause with a subjunctive verb either has or implies another 
clause; and hence the mood is called subjunctive, which means joined 
dependently to something else. 

412. When the subjunctive mood refers to present or 
past time, it generally implies a denial of the fact ; when 
to future time, that the fact is uncertain or contingent. 

This is obvious : we can not do a past act •, we may do a future ; and a present suppo- 
sition, developed into reality, becomes indicative. 

413. The subjunctive mood uses be in stead of am, are, 
and is; were in stead of was; and generally undergoes no 
change of form throughout the same tense. 

To a verb in the subjunctive mood, should or some other auxiliary 
verb can generally be understood; as, "If thou ever return, thou 
sliouldst be thankful " = If thou shouldst ever return, thou shouldst 
be thankful. 

414. If, though, lest, unless, except, whether, that, till, 
or a similar word, generally precedes and indicates the 
subjunctive mood. 

Ex. — If I were. If J had been. 

415. By placing the verb or its auxiliary before the 
subject, the conditional word can generally be omitted. 

Ex. — Were I, for If I were. Had I been, for If I had been. 

416. The subjunctive mood has three tenses: the 
present, the past, and the past-perfect ; which are gen- 
erally equivalent in time to a future tense, a present 
tense, and a past tense. 

Present (Future, in time) •. " If he be at home, I shall speak to him." 
Past (Present, in time) : "If he were at home, I would speak to him." 
Past-perfect (Past, in time) : " Had he been at home, I would have spoken to him." 
These tenses are sufficient, yet needed, for all the purposes of this mood. Most gram- 
marians reject the past-perfect tense : but this tense is subjunctive, not indicative, in 
time ; subjunctive in origin, and subjunctive in syntax. 

The past subjunctive may sometimes be called the indefinite subjunctive j and the 
past-perfect, the pluperfect. 

The outer or real world impresses itself so vividly and with such 
distinctness upon the mind, that the indicative mood has two tenses 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

for each great period of time ; but tbe subjunctive mood, being ap- 
plied to what is more vague and less important, has and needs but 
one tense for each period. Sometimes other tenses, especially the 
perfect, are found in this mood ; but such forms are antiquated, and 
not considered necessary to modern English. 

There is one thing about the subjunctive mood that is remarkable. 
Obliged to borrow the tenses of the indicative mood, and unable to 
vary them sufficiently in form, it adopts for each period of time the 
tense of the prior period, in order to avoid expressing the matter-of- 
fact sense denoted by the indicative mood ; because we can not now, 
for instance, do a past act. Thus the past-perfect tense becomes 
simply a past tense ; the past, a present ; and the present, a future. 

Potential Mood. 

The Potential Mood expresses our chief relations to 
acts or states, either indicatively or subjunctively. 

Ex. — "I could not go yesterday"; indicative, in time. 

" I would go now or to-morrow " ; subjunctive, in. time. 

That is, the tenses of this mood, especially in time, correspond 
sometimes with the indicative mood, and sometimes with the subjunc- 
tive, 

417» A verb in the potential mood may express, — 

1. Power. "I can go " "I could go." 

2. Possibility. "It may rain." " It might rain" 

3. Liberty or. permission. "You may go" 

4. Inclination. "I would go" 

5. Duty. "I should go" 

6. Necessity. " I must go" 

7. A wish. "May you prosper '." 

Occasionally, this mood expresses other relations, as tendency, 
adaptation, consequence, contingence, etc.; and in some expressions 
the relational sense is so nearly lost that the mood is almost indica- 
tive or subjunctive. 

418. The potential mood can be used interrogatively. 

Ex. — " Must I endure all this ? " 



VERBS. 185 

419. The signs of the potential mood are may, can, 

must, might, could, would, and should. 

Shall in the sense of must, and will when it expresses volition, belong rather 
to the potential mood than to the indicative; but, to avoid troublesome dis- 
tinctions, iiioy are always considered as belonging to the indicative mood. 

Imperative Mood. 
The Imperative Mood expresses our volitions, gen- 
erally as commands. 

420. A verb in the imperative mood may express, — 

1. Command. " John, sit up." 

2. Entreaty. " Forgive our trespasses." 

3. Exhortation. "Believe, reform, and he saved." 

4. Permission. " Go in peace." 

We command inferiors, entreat superiors, exhort equals, and permit in compliance 
with the wishes of others. 

421. The imperative mood is generally used only in 
the present tense and the second person. 

Ex. — " Charge, Chester, charge I " — Scott. 

422. The subject of a verb in the imperative mood is 
thou, you, or ye, generally understood. 

Ex. — " Know thyself" === Know thou thyself. 

Sometimes the imperative mood is found in the perfect tense ; a<*, '"Have 
done thy charms, thou hateful, withered hag." — Shakespeare. 

423. Sometimes the imperative mood is used in the 
first or the third person. 

Ex. — " Somebody call my wife." — Shakespeare. 

" ' And rest we here/ Matilda said." — Scott. 
"Laugh those who can, weep those who may." — Id. 
" Whoever comes this way, behold and tremble." — Pollok. 
Such expressions are generally poetical forms, preferred to the common imperative let. 
The imperative let is often used with little or no reference to a 
person addressed ; simply as a form of expression, to make known 
the wili of the speaker; as, ■" Let it rain." To let this be done 
evidently does not depend on the power of the person addressed. 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

TENSE. 

424, Tense is that property of verbs which shows the 
distinctions of time. 

Time may be divided into present, past, and future. Present 
time, strictly speaking, can denote but a moment of duration ; yet 
longer periods, extending into both the future and the past, are often 
considered present; as when we say, this day, this week, this year, this 
century, in our lifetime. Past time begins from the present, and 
goes back as far as our thoughts can wander. Future time begins 
from the same point, and goes forward to a similar extent. In each 
of these periods, an act may be considered either as merely taking 
place or as completed, thus making the six tenses. 

Read the following both down the page and across it : — 

Present. Past. Future. 

I write I wrote I shall write 

I nave written , I had written I shall have written^ 

425. There are six tenses : the present, the present- 
perfect ; the past, the past-perfect ; the future, and the 
future-perfect. 

The terms perfect and pluperfect may also be used in stead of present-perfect and 
past-perfect. 

It seems better to define the tenses according to their forms, and in every mood, than 
according to the time which they denute. 

Present Tense. 
428. Present Indicative.' A verb in the present 
tense of the indicative mood may denote, — 

1. A present act or state. 

Ex. — The grass is growing. This is a warm dayv 

2. A present habit or custom. 

Ex. — He chews tobacco. People go to church on Sunday. 

3. An unchangeable truth. . 

Ex. — Heat melts snow. Virtue produces happiness. 
W. The Doctor said that fever always produced thirst. 

He said it was forty miles from Baltimore to Washington. 

Such acts or states are truths inherent in the nature of things, and therefore belong not 
only to present time, but to all time. Since we live, however, only in present time- and 
are inostiy concerned with this period, the present tense is preferred. . 



VERBS. 137 

4. A past or future transaction, which is thus pre- 
sented with greater vividness or certainty. 

Ex. — " On Linden, when the sun was low, .... 

The combat deepens. On, ye brave ! " — Campbell. 
" The Guard never surrenders : it dies! " i. e., will never, etc. 
By this species of present tense, the reader is made, as it were, a spectator of the scene. 

5. Some characteristic of an author, as observed in his 
works now existing. 

Ex. — Seneca reasons and moralizes well. Milton is sublime. 

427. The present subjunctive implies future time* 

Ex. — If it rain, our flowers will live. 

It is necessary that the messenger^ be sent as soon as possible. 

428. The present potential is present or future in 
regard to both the mood and the act or state. 

Ex. — He may be coming, I can pay you next Christmas. 

429. The present imperative is present in regard to 
the mood, and future in regard to the act or state. 

Ex. — " Return soon." "I said, Go; and he went." 

The imperative mood has the form of the -prezrv.t tpnse. ; in other reppects, however, 
it has little or nothing to do with time, but expresses merely the will of tho speaker iu re- 
gard to the person addressed. 

Present-perfect Tense. 

430. Present-perfect Indicative. A verb in the 
present-perfect tense of the indicative mood may repre- 
sent something, — 

1. As completed in present time. 
Ex. — I have finished the work. 

2. As connected with present time. 

Ex. — " They.have been married twenty years." And still remain so, 
W. They continue with us now three days. 

431. An act may be connected with present time, — 

1. By the present existence of the doer. 
Ex, — "I have often read Virgil." And I still live, and may read 
him arpiii. 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. By the present continuance of the act or state. 

Ex. — -" Thus has it [the Mississippi] flowed for ages." And it 
still flows and flows. 

3. By the present existence of the result. 

Ex. — " Cicero has written orations." Cicero is dead, and the 
writing is past, but the orations still exist. 

4. By the presence of some important circumstance. 

Ex. — " Many important events have happened \ during this year" 
" On this island several duels have been fought" Time and place yet 
remaining. 

432* The present-perfect potential is present or 
future in regard to the mood, and presents the act or 
state as relatively past. 

Ex. — " The child may have fallen into the well." " By that time 
he may have gone ahead of you." 

Past Tense. 

433, Past Indicative. A verb in the past tense of 
the indicative mood denotes, — 

1. Simply a past act or state. 

Ex. — " He teas fishing when I saw him." " If he ever was rich.'* 

2. Sometimes a past habit or custom. 

Ex. — " The good times when the farmer entertained the traveler without 
pay, when he inmted him to tarry, and join in the chase, and when Christmas 
and Fourth of July were seasons of festivity, have passed away." — Benton. 

434, The past subjunctive denotes present or in- 
definite time, and it generally denies the act or state. 

Ex. — If I were rich, I would give freely. 
W. He runs as if he was running for life. 
This tense sometimes becomes definitely past or future from its syntax., 

435, The past potential may be present, past, or 
future, in regard to both the mood and the act or state. 
It represents the act or state as real, contingent, or denied. 

M He would go yesterday." '• He would go now or to-morrow, if he could. ,K 



VERBS. 139 

Sometimes it denotes a past habit or custom. 
Ex. — " There would she sit and weep for hours." 

Past-perfect Tense. 
438. Past-perfect Indicative. A verb in the past- 
perfect tense of the indicative mood represents something 
as completed or ended in past time. 
Ex. — " Here a small cabin had been erected." 
W. And he that was dead, sat up, and began to speak. 

437. The past-perfect subjunctive or potential 

denotes simply past time, and denies the act or state, 
Ex. — " If I had been at home, I should have gone'* 

Future Tense. 

438. A verb in the future tense denotes, — 

1. Simply a future act or state. 

Ex. — " The snow will melt." " I shall be busy this evening." 

2. Sometimes a future habit or custom. 
Ex. — " The steer and lion at one crib shall meet." 

Future-perfect Tense. 

439. A verb in the future-perfect tense represents 
something as completed in future time. 

Ex. — The liouse, when finished, will have cost a fortune. 
W. This vfas four years ago next August. — School Report. 
Nexi Christmas I shall be at school a year. 

General Remarks. 

440. The tenses of the subjunctive mood, in order to 
be distinguished better from the tenses of the indicative, 
move /forward in time. 

Indicative '. " If I am " — now. " If I was " — in past time. " I had been there " — 
befo 7 a certain past time. 

Simtinctive : " H I be " — hereafter. " If I were " — now. " Had I been there " ~ 
at aVceri.ain past time, etc. 

1 



1% ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

441. The tenses of the potential mood, when used sub- 
junctively, also move forward in time. 

Ex. — "I should think you might risk it " ; i. e., now or hereafter. 

442. Sometimes tvhen, till, before, as soon as, whoever, 
whatever, or a similar term, carries the present or the 
present-perfect tense into future time. 

Ex. — "When he comes, I shall go." u Catch whatever comes. 1 ' 
"When he has finished the work, I shall pay him." 

A tense is sometimes used to deny the same act or state of the 
subject in a neighboring tense; as, "He has been rich"; t. e., he is 
not so now. 

The present, the past, and the future, are called the absolute tenses ; 
and the present-perfect, the past-perfect, and the future-perfect, the 
relative tenses, for these relate from one point of time to another. 
Sometimes the prominent idea in the absolute tenses is simply that a 
certain act or state exists; in the relative tenses, that it is completed. 

Since the perfect passive participle generally implies 
completion, a passive verb in the absolute tenses is fre- 
quently equivalent in time to the corresponding relative 
tenses of the active voice. 

44 My rose-bush is destroyed " ; " Some one has destroyed my rose-bush.'* 

" The coat will then be- finished" ; " The tailor will then have finished the coat." 

Observe also the kindred analogy in the following passive forms: — 
" The house is building " ; present. ) So, " The house was building" ; imperfect. 
44 The house is built " ; completed. ) " The house was built " ; completed. 

FORMS OF THE TENSES. 

443. The Forms of a Tense are the different ways 
in which it can be expressed. 

Ex. — He strikes, does strike, is striking, is struck, striketh. 

444. There are five forms ; the common, the emphatic, 
the passive, the progressive, and the ancient, or the solemn 
style. 

445. The Common Form is the verb expressed m 
the most simple and ordinary manner. 

Ex. — Time flies. He went home. 



VERBS. 141 

■ 

446, The Emphatic Form denotes emphasis, ex- 
pressed by do or did as a part of the verb. 

Ex. — I did say so. Really, it does move. 

Do and did do not make negative propositions emphatic, but simply give a better po- 
sition to the negative by helping to enclose it within the verb j as, " I did not see him.'* 

Do and did do not make interrogative propositions emphatic, but simply give the in- 
terrogative form by preceding the subject ; as, " D:d ye not hear it? " 

447, The Passive Form is that which is generally 
used to express the passive voice ; and it is made by com- 
bining the verb be, or some variation of it, with the per- 
fect participle. 

Ex. — The oak was shattered by lightning. 

" The melancholy days are come" — Bryant. 

448, The Progressive Form is that which expresses 
continuance of the act or state ; and it is made by com- 
bining the verb be, or some variation of it, with the pres- 
ent participle. 

This form, by spreading out, as it were, the act before the mind, is sometimes highly 
vivid and expressive. 

Active: I wrote; 1 was writing. She is dancing. (Dances — trait.) 
Passive : " I guessed that some mischief was contriving." — Swift. 

" Where a new church is now building" — Everett. 

" While these affairs were transacting in Europe." — Bancroft 

" Our chains are forging." — Wirt, as Patrick Henry. 

" Yankee Doodle was playing as I came in." — M. C. 

" Where the new rifle-practice was being introduced." — A tl. Monthly. 

" Your friend- is being buried." — Harper's Magazine. 

" The shocking neologism, ' The ship is being calked.' " — Marsh. 

"The participial form [infin. and part] is, in most languages, a stumbling-block. (Query 
for the purists : Ought I rather to say, A block-that-is-being-stumbled-at?) " —Marsh. 
For additional remarks on this subject, see pp. 307 and 316. 

The progressive form can generally be applied only to those acts or 
states which admit of intermissions and renewals. Permanent mental 
acts or states, and unchangeable truths, can therefore be seldom expressed 
in it. We can not say, " I am respecting him," " I am under 'standing you." 
" The air is having weight" ; but we must say, " I respect him/' '" i under- 
stand you," " The air has weight." 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

449. The Ancient Form is an old common form that 
is still retained in the solemn style. 

It has the ending t, st, or est, for the second person singular ; 
th or eth in stead of s or es, for the third person singular ; and 
generally uses thou or ye in stead of you. 

This form occurs in the Bible, in prayer, in sermons, and in poetry. 

Ex. — "'Thou barb'dst the dart " " Adversity flatter eth no man." 

Doth is used for the auxiliary does, and doeth for the verb does. 
Hath and saiih are contractions of haveth and say eth. 

450. Interrogative. A proposition is made interroga- 
tive, generally by placing the verb, or some part of it, 
before the nominative. 

Ex. — " Know ye the land ? " " Have you seen him ? " 

451. Negative. A proposition is made negative by 
placing not after the verb or after the first auxiliary. 

Ex. — " I know not? " It could not have been known." 

A participle or an infinitive is expressed negatively, generally by 
placing not before it; as, " Not to know some things is an honor." 
" Not hearing of him, we returned." 

Some propositions are both interrogative and negative. Negative ques- 
tions generally imply something contrary to the speaker's belief, or ask for 
confirmation. Both affirmative and negative questions are answered by no 
or yes alike. " Did you go ? — No." " Did you not go. — - No." 

"And did they not catch you, then 1 — No, thank Heaven ! " — Garrick. 

PERSON AND NUMBER. 

452. The Person and Number of a verb are its form 
to suit the person and number of its subject. 

Ex. — lam. Thou art. He is. "We are. 

Verbs have, like their subjects, three persons and two numbers. 

453. A finite verb must agree with its subject, in 
person and number. 

That is, it must be expressed according to the Conjugation, pp. 160- 170, which shows 
how the best writers and speakers express the verb in regard to its subject. 



VERBS. 143 

454. I, thou, you, he, she, it, we, and they, either are the 
subjects of finite verbs, or they can represent all other 
subjects in person and number. 

455. Thou generally requires the verb, or the first 
auxiliary, to end with est, st, or t. 

" Thou know est that thou didst the deed." " Thou art the man." 
When the termination required by thou would be harsh, it is some- 
times omitted, especially in poetry. 

" O Thou my voice inspire, 

Who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire." — Pope. 

" Perhaps thou noticed on thy way a little orb." — Pollok, 

In the imperative mood, thou does not require any variation 
in the form of the verb. 

456. He, she, or it, requires that the verb, in the pres- 
ent indicative, shall end with s or es, th or eth. 

Ex. — He has, or hath. She teaches, or teacheth. 

The verb ought, which is never varied, is the only exception. 

457. In the plural number the verb has the same form 
for all the persons. 

Ex. — We write. You write. They write. 

The agreement of the verb with its subject, and the agreement of 
the pronoun with its antecedent, make the chief syntax of the Eng- 
lish language ; let us therefore consider, — 

1. The person of the subject or antecedent 

2. The number of the subject or antecedent. 

3. The terms relating to the subject or antecedent, which do not 
affect the form of the verb or pronoun. 

1. Person. 

458. When two or more nominatives or antecedents, 
differing in person, are taken together, or are connected 
merely by and, the verb or pronoun prefers the first per- 
son to the second, and the second to the third. 

Ex. — " You and I f " or, " You, he, and I" = We; " You and he "=You. 
" James and I have recited \ our lessons." 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

459i When two or more nominatives, differing in per- 
son, are taken separately, or connected by or or nor, the 
Verb prefers the nominative next to it. 

Ex. — " You or I am to blame " ; better, Either you are to blame, 
or I am. " Thou or thy friends are to make reparation." 
W. He or you is the cause of my trouble. 

2. Singular Subject or Antecedent. 

460, The following subjects or antecedents are singu- 
lar : - — 

1. A singular noun or pronoun denoting a single ob- 
ject. 

Ex. — The fire burns. John is at home. 

2. A singular collective noun denoting a group of ob- 
jects as one thing. 

Ex. — " His family is large, yet he supports it" 

W. The army of Xerxes were vanquished by the Greeks. 

8. A plural noun denoting but one thing. 

Ex. — The " Pleasures of Hope " was writte?i by Campbell. 

W. Young's " Night Thoughts " are a gloomy but instructive poem. 

4. Two or more nouns joined by and, yet denoting 
but one person or thing. 

Ex. — Yonder lives a great scholar and statesman. 
" Why is dust and ashes [man] proud ? " 
Goldsmith's "Edwin and Angelina" is a beautiful poenu 

5. Sometimes two or more singular substantives, joined 
by and and denoting different things, but taken as one 
whole. 

Ex. — "Wooing, wedding, and repenting, \ is a Scotch jig, a measure, 
and a cinque pace."— Shakespeare. Here is seems to be proper, as 
referring to the three things taken in a certain order as one whole. 
" Descent and fall to us is adverse." — Milton. 
So, "-To turn and flee \ was now impossible." — Irving. 



VERBS. 145 

6. A singular substantive, or a phrase of two or more, 
modified by each, every, either, neither, many a, or no. 

Ex. — "Every house was turned; and every man, woman, and 
child, was killed" — Burke. 

" No rank, no fortune, no honor, makes the guilty happy." — Blair. 
" Full many a flower is born to blush unseen." — Gray. 
"W. No crop, no house, and no fence, were left. — Newspaper. 
Every heart and eye were filled with pity. — Croly. 

7. Two or more singular substantives joined by or or 

nor. 

" Tuesday, Wednesday, or Thursday, was the appointed day." 

" To forsake a friend, or to divulge his secrets, is mean." 

" Neither precept nor discipline it so forcible as example." 

" Nor eye nor listening ear an object finds" — Young. 

W. Neither poetry nor criticism have emerged from pedantry. 

Edinburgh Review* 

8. A series of substantives placed after a verb, when 
the verb, for the sake of emphasis, agrees only with the 
first, and is understood to each of the rest. 

" Thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory." — Bible. 
" There is Concord, and Lexington, and Bunker Hill, and there 
they will remain forever." — Webster. 

The pronoun they, in this last example, seems to afford, in regard to pro- 
nouns, an exception to the general principle ; but it is obvious that this ap- 
parent exception arises simply from a different view that is taken of the sense. 

3. Plural Subject or Antecedent. 

461. The following subjects or antecedents are plu- 
ral : — 

1. A plural substantive that denotes two or more ob- 
jects, or that is plural in sense. 

Ex. — The fires burn. The ashes have lost \ their heat. 
W. Here is five or six barrels that you may take. 

There was not more than ten or fifteen persons present. 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. f 

2. A collective noun that is singular m form, but plu- 
ral in idea. 

Ex. — " The council were divided in their opinions." 

Such a noun is plural in idea when we must think of the persons or things separately, 
in order to make the assertion. 

Ex. — "The majority are handsome, and of large stature." 

That is, the individual islanders of this majority are so. — See Ellis's Polynesian Res. 
W. The public is respectfully invited. 

The multitude eagerly pursues pleasure. 

3. A singular noun, used, by synecdoche, for a plural. 

JEx. — -Eorty liead of cattle were grazing on the meadow. 

4. Two or more substantives connected by and, and 
denoting different persons or things. 

Ex. — u John, James, and William, [= the boys,] are studying." 

" You, he, and J, [= we,] are allowed to go." 
* 4 To love our enemies, to mind our own business, and to relieve 
the distressed, are things oftener praised than practised." 
W. Where is your slate and pencil? 

Is your father and mother at home ? 

There was at least he and I, who did not recite. 

5. A singular and a plural substantive, or two or more 
plurals, joined by or or nor. 

" The king or his advisers were opposed to that course ; while 
neither the prince nor his friends were prepared to defend it." — Hume. 

Sometimes the verb agrees with the nearest nominative ; as, 
" Where there is an infant or infants who are yet," etc. — Mo. Statutes. 

4. Terms ifrat do Not Affect the Form of the Verb or Pronoun. 

462, The following terms do not affect the form of the 

verb or pronoun : — 

1. An adjunct to the nominative. 

Ex. — " The long row of elms was magnificent." 

So, " Six months' interest is due." 
W. The chief portion of the exports consist of silks. — Newspaper. 



VERBS. 147 

2. A term in apposition. 

Ex. — " Love, and love only, is the loan for love." 
W. The Bible, or Holy Scriptures, are the best book. 

3. A predicate-nominative. 

Ex. — "I was eyes to the blind, and feet was I to the lame." — Bible. 
u His meat [food] was locusts and wild honey. — lb. 
" The people are a many-headed beast,*' — Pope. 
W. The Crown of virtue are peace and honor. 

It is sometimes difficult to determine which of the nominatives is the sub- 
ject, or to which nominative a relative clause should be referred. The sense 
is the best guide. " The wages of sin is death." Here wages is the nomina- 
tive to is. " J am the general, who command you " ; i. e., I am the general. " I 
am the general who commands you" ; i. e., I am your general. 

4. A term set off parenthetically or emphatically. 

** This man (and, indeed, all such men) deserves death." 

14 Our statesmen, especially John Adams, have reached a good old age." 

u The carriage, as well as the horses, was much injured." 

The subjects "belong to different propositions, and the verb agrees with the first subject. 

W. Our taxes, especially the military tax, is enormous. 
The house, as well as the furniture, were destroyed. 

5. An excepted or excluded term, or a term that is ap- 
parently set aside for a more important or expressive one. 

Ex. — " Pleasure, and not books, is his delight." 
" Books, and not pleasure, are his delight." 
" Since none but thou can end it." — Milton. 
" Not only rage, but even murmurs cease." — Pope, abridged. 
" What black despair, what horror Jills his heart! " — Thomson. 
11 Honor and virtue, nay, even interest demands a different course." 
"W". Industry, and not mean savings, produce wealth. 
Nothing but wailings were heard. 



463t Words must sometimes be supplied, to complete 
the subject. 

Ex. — " Little and often fills the purse " == To put in little and 

often, etc. " Dear and far-fetched is for ladies " = What is dear, etc. 

It would probably be quite as well to parse the whole phrase as a noun v without sup' 
plying words. 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

464. A few verbs denote such acts or states that the 
language has no nouns suitable to be their subjects ; and 
these verbs are therefore accommodated in syntax with 
the pronoun it. 

Ex. — " It rains. 9 * " It snows." " It thunders:' 

Verbs of this kind are impersonal in some languages ; they are logically so in ours, 
but not grammatically so ; for the difficulty is in the meaning of it, and not in the 
agreement of the verb. The word it seems to be needed in syntax ; for without it such 
words as rains and thunders might sometimes appear as the plurals of the nouns rain 
and thunder, and not as verbs. 

465. An Impersonal Verb is a verb that has person 
and number, without having a subject ; being generally 
a mere modifying form of expression. 

Ex. — Methinks, meseems, frequently the imperative let, and some- 
times other imperatives ; as, " There are, say, a thousand languages 
and dialects ; " i. e., probably a thousand, etc. 

It is worthy of notice that independent infinitive and participial phrases also fall into 
the foregoing analogy ; as, " To speak frankly, he will probably not succeed." " Gen- 
erally speaking, the people are in good circumstances." 

Let us next notice by what means all the foregoing properties of verbs are expressed. 

AUXILIARY VERBS. 

466. The auxiliary verbs express voice, mood, tense, 
person, and number. 

They also contribute to what is called, in syntax, position (as in negative or interroga- 
tive propositions) ; and they are used as the pronouns or pro -verbs to other verbs. 

467 • The auxiliary verbs are be and its variations ; do, 
did; can, could; have, had; may, might; must; shall, 
should; will, and would. 

Be is used to express the verb in the passive and the progressive form; 
as, "The house is built" "The leaves are falling" It shows when or 
how the person or thing exists in the state denoted by the rest of the verb. 

Do and Did, except in negative or interrogative propositions, are gen- 
erally used to give emphasis to the verb; as, "But when I do go, I choose 
to go as a lady." — Mrs. Caudle. They denote action indefinitely, which 
is made specific by the rest of the verb. ' 

Can and Could are used to express, — 

1. Ability. "I can carry £he basket," 

2. Possibility. " It can not be" It is impossible. 







VERBS. 

Have and Had are used to express the perfect tenses. 

Ex. — I have seen. I had seen. I shall have seen. 
May and Might are used to express, — 

1 . Ability o # r probability. " I might have done it." .-. 

2. Possibility or probability. " It might have been.'{ "It may rain,*' 

3. Permission. " You may go " 

4. Wishing. "May you prosper." 

Must is used to express necessity. "Die I must." — 27. K. White. 
Shall and Should are used to set forth the act or state, — 

1. As a duty, as something commanded or authorized, or as some- 
thing determined or resolved upon. 

Ex. — " Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself." " You should obey." 
" He shall stay at home." " They said, ' It shall be done' " 
" Shall I be left, forgotten in the dust, 
When Fate, relenting, lets the flower revive ? " — Beattie. 

W. Will I be allowed to occupy this seat ? 

2. As something compelled by circumstances, especially when the 
subject is of the first person. 

Ex. — "I shall be drowned ; for nobody will help me." 
W. I will suffer, if I do not take my overcoat. 
We would then be obliged to retreat. 

3. As something future or contingent, but without reference to the 
will of the subject, and especially when the subject is of the first 
person. 

Ex. — " I shall call to see you this evening." 

" Should you meet any of my friends, remember me to them." 
fi Do you think the book will sell ? — I should think so." 
" Whoever shall violate this rule, shall [% 1] be punished." 
" Yes, my son; you shall ofienfndthe richest men the meanest." 
— Tattler. That is, this fact will often force itself upon your 
notice. An obsolescent but good use of the word. 
W. Will I find you here when I return \ — See also If I- 

Would we hear a good sermon if we would go ? [land. 

Isabella promised a pension to the first seaman who would discover 

The various meanings of sJiall tend to make it very expressive in 
prophecy. 

Ex. — " Earth shall by angel feet be trod, 

One great garden of her God i " — Croly (on the Millennium). 
"Beware of the day when the Lowlands shall meet thee." — Campbell * 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Will and Would are used to set forth the act or state, — 

1. As something proceeding from the will or nature of the subject. 
Ex. — " We will drain our dearest veins, but they shall be Tree." 

" I would not live always ; I ask not to stay." 

" This will do." " It will rain soon." "The cause will rdise up armies.'' 
W. I shall go home, in spite of all opposition." 

2. As something repeated from a steadfast inclination to do it. 
Ex. — " There would she sit and weep for hours." 

3. Simply as something future, wherever shall or should would 
imply compulsion ; and hence especially when the subject is of the 
second or third person* 

Ex. — " You will be ridiculed for your eccentricity." 

" If he should go to church, he would hear a good sermon." 

W. t believe that all these volunteers shall be sent away. 

In conditional propositions, shall or should must nearly always be used 
to express simple futurity or contingence ; for will and would in such pro- 
positions generally refer to the will of the subject. 

Ex.^-"If I shall have been" " If you shall have been" "When he 
shall go" " Whoever shall say so." 

468. Auxiliary verbs are often convenient when we wish to 
express the verb interrogatively, negatively, or elliptically. 

Ex. — " Do you know Lydia Flare ? " Placed before the nominative. 
M Can you go ? " "I do not want his company." (See page 141.) 
" If man will not do justice^ God will " [do justice]. 
" They herd cattle, and raise corn, just as we used to do ; i. e., to herd 
cattle and raise corn. Do is sometimes thus used as a sort of pro-verb to 
represent an active verb or a phrase. 

469. Be, do, and have, and sometimes other auxiliaries, are 
used also as principal verbs. They are thus used when not 
combined with a principal verb expressed or understood. 

Principal. Auxiliary. 

" I was sick." u I was made sick." 

" He does well." " He do e s write well." 

" She has nothing." " She has learned nothing." 

470o The auxiliaries do, have, may, can, must, will, and shall, 
generally accord best with one another, and with the present 
tenses ; the auxiliaries did, had, might, could, ivould, and should, 



VERBS. 151 

generally accord best with one another, and with the past 

tenses. 

Ex. — '* Wha; Nature has denied, fools will pursue/' — Young. 

What Nature had denied, he would pursue. 
W. If I lend you my horse, I should have to borrow one myself. 
To the foregoing paragraph there are many exceptions. 

INFINITIVES. 

471. An Infinitive is a form of the verb that generally 
begins with to, and that expresses the act or state without 
predicating it. 

Ex. — To lead, to have led, to be led, to have been led. 

472. There are two infinitives ; the present and the 
perfect 

A transitive verb has both in each voice *, thus making four forms, as above. 

Present Infinitive. 

473. The Present Infinitive denotes, — 

1. Simply the act or state. 
Ex. — "To love is to serve" 

2. The act or state as present in regard to the word 
on which the infinitive depends. 

Ex. — " She seems | to stud?/. 99 

3. The act or state as future in regard to the word on 
which the infinitive depends. 

Ex. — " Man never is, but always to be, blest." — Pope. 
W. I hoped to have heard from you. 

I intended to have said less. 

It was still in his power to have refused. — Dryden. 

474. The present infinitive consists of to, combined 
with the simplest form of the verb ; or of to be, with a 
simple participle. 

Ex. — To write, to be writing, to be written. 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Perfect Infinitive. 

475. The Perfect Infinitive represents the act or 
state as completed at the time referred to. 

Ex. — " You seem | to have come through the rain." 

476. The perfect infinitive consists of to have> or to 
have been, combined with a simple participle. 

To have written, to have been writing, to have been written. 

The perfect infinitive is so combined with the verb ought, and sometimes 

with the verb have or was, that the whole expression is equivalent in time 

to the past-perfect potential ; as, " I ought to have gone." And in the idiom, 

" I had like to have fallen overboard." — Swift. And, probably, " I was to 

have gone' 7 implying, " I did not go," and considered incorrect by most 

grammarians, is allowable as belonging to the same analogy. — See p. 307. 

It is remarkable that, in combination with most of the auxiliary verbs, the perfect infini- 
tive does not imply antecedent time } and all the foregoing verbs seem have fallen into 
the same analogy. 

Syntax of Infinitives. 

477* An infinitive may express something, — 

As the cause. " I grieve to hear of your bad conduct." 
As the purpose. " And fools, who came to scoff, remained to pray." 
As simply a future or subsequent event. " He fell to rise no more." 
As the respect wherein. " Willing to wound, and yet afraid to strike." 
As a determination or obligation, " I am to go." " It is to be deplored, that," etc. 
As the manner. " All things went to suit me." 

As the supplement of a comparison. " Good enough to sell" " So mean as 
to be despised:" 

478. An infinitive may be used, — 

Chiefly as a verb. " He is supposed to h,ave gone." 

Partially as an adverb. " I came to see you." (Came why ?) 

Partially as an adjective. "An opportunity to study." 

Partially as a noun. " To have learned the art, will be a pleasure." 

In combination with all the auxiliary verbs except have and be. "I did [to] 

write." " I can [to] study." 
Independently, for a clause or a sentence. " But, to proceed" etc. 

479. In its substantive sense, the infinitive may be used, — 

As the subject of a verb. " To retreat was impossible." 
As the object of a verb. " He wished to retreat." 
An infinitive becomes thus the object of a verb when that verb is transitive, * 



VERBS. 163 

As the object of about, except, or but. " He is about to retreat'* 

As a predicate-nominative. " To sin is to suffer." 

As an appositive. " Delightful task ! to rear the tender thought." 

480^ An infinitive may be construed with, — 

A noun. " He has the courage to venture." 

A pronoun. '- Hear him speak." 

An adjective. " He is anxious to start." 

A verb. " He seems to prosper." " I came to remain." 

An adverb. " He knows when to purchase." 

Strictly speaking, the whole phrase, when to purchase, depends on knows* 

A preposition. " He is about to sell his farm." 

A conjunction. "He is wiser than to believe it." 

An interjection, elliptically. "0, to be in such, a condition ! " 

Strictly speaking, the infinitive phrase is here used as a nominative independent, by 
exclamation. 

Be is often combined with about and the infinitive, to express something 
as future and impending at the time referred to; as, " We were \ about to 
start." 

Be, in some of the tenses, may be combined with the infinitive, to express 
determination or design ; as, " They are \ to be sold." 

Have is often combined with the infinitive, to express obligation or ne- 
cessity ; as, " I shall have \ to pay it." 

The verbs seem, appear, suppose, etc., are often combined with the infini- 
tive, to modify or soften the assertion ; as, ''' She seems to know but little." 

481. To is omitted when the infinitive is combined with an 
auxiliary verb. 

Ex. — " He does [to] study." " I can [to] study " — I am able to study. 

482. To is omitted after the active verbs bid, make, need, 
hear, | let, see, feel, and dare; after let in the passive voice; 
sometimes after have, help, please, find, and equivalents of see ; 
and sometimes after a conjunction, or in colloquial expressions. 

Ex. — "Let us [to] sing." "I heard him [to] say it." 
[It is] " Better [to] lose than [to] be disgraced." 

About seven hundred years ago the infinitive had the ending en or an in stead of the 
prefix to. The combinations of the infinitive with auxiliaries, and with most of the fore- 
going verbs, were then or previously made ; and it would therefore be more appropriate 
to say that these verbs are followed by the old infinitive, which had not to ; as, "Heo 
conne speken" = They can speak. 

7* 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PARTICIPLES. 



483# A Participle is a form of the verb that expresses 
the act or state without predicating it, and generally re- 
sembles an adjective. 

Ex. — u A tree, bending with fruit, fell to the ground." 

Observe that/e//, and not bending, predicates something of tree ; also that the phrase, 
bending with fruit, is, like an adjective, descriptive of the tree. 

484. There are two participles ; the present and the 
perfect, each of which is either simple or compound. 

Present Participle. 

485. The Present Participle represents the act or 

state as present and continuing at the time referred to. 

Ex. — " We saw the moon rising.'' 1 

" Being thus ivowided, he can not return to his regiment." 

486. The simple present participle is made by annex- 
ing ing to the simplest form of the verb. 

Ex. — Catch, catcliing ; hide, hiding ; dig, digging. 

487. The simple present participle, of a transitive verb, 
is nearly always in the active voice. 

Ex. — "The bee, stinging the boy, soon set itself free." 

488. In some connections this participle can be used 
in the passive voice. 

Ex. — " Virgil describes some spirits as bleaching in the winds, 
others as cleansing [i. <?., being cleansed"] under great falls of water, 
and others as purging in fire, to recover the primitive beauty and 
purity of their nature." — 'Addison. " I could easily see what was 
doing on the other side of the river." — Bulwer. 

Perfect Participle. 

489. The Perfect Participle represents the act or, 

6tate as completed at the time referred to, 

Ex. — "A fox, caught in a trap." 

" A fox, having caught a hen, met the owner," etc. 



VERBS. 155 

490. The simple perfect participle is made by annex- 
ing ed to the simplest form of the verb ; or it is an ir- 
regular form, given in the list of irregular verbs. 

Ex. — Pitch, pitched; give, given; see, seen; teach, taught. 

491. The simple perfect participle of a transitive verb 
is either active or passive. 

492. It is in the active voice, when have in any of its 
forms is combined with it. 

Ex. — Having given. To have given. I have given. I had given. 
I shall have given. 

493. It is in the passive voice, — 

1. When it stands by itself. 

Ex. — " The apple eaten by Eve was the first temptation." 

2. When be in any of its forms, is combined with it. 
Ex. — " The apple was given to Eve to be eaten by her." 

494. The simple perfect participle of some verbs can 
be used as a present participle. 

Ex. — " He lives loved by all." 

Compound Participle. 

495. A Compound Participle is one that consists of 
being, having, or having been, combined with gome other 
participle. 

Being, having, and having been, thus become auxiliary parti- 
ciples to other participles. 

Ex. — Written ; being written, having written, having been written. 

496. Being is used chiefly to express the present pas- 
sive participle. 

Ex. — " The soldier being wounded, was carried to the hospital. 

The act of wounding is past ; but he still remains in the wounded state. 

The compound participle, thus formed, generally expresses the present con- 
tinuance of a completed act, rather than the present receiving of the act. 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

497. Having is used chiefly to express the perfect 
active participle of transitive verbs, or to express the 
participle in time that corresponds to some perfect tense. 

Ex. — Loved, having loved, " Having said this, he withdrew " = 
When he had said this, he withdrew. "Having learned the lesson, 
you may play " = Since or when you have learned the lesson, etc. 

498. Having been is used chiefly to express the per- 
fect participle corresponding to the compound present 
passive participle, or to the simple perfect passive parti- 
ciple that is present in time. 

u The soldier, having been wounded, was recognized by the scar.* 

Loved, having been loved ; occupied, having been occupied. 

Occasionally, the auxiliary participles are used for other purposes, of 
which the principal are, to exclude predication, to distinguish voice, to dis- 
tinguish cause from condition, to show more distinctly the participial sense, 
and to give more distinctly the sense of a clause to the participial phrase. 

" This being proved, the conclusion is irresistible." Proved, without 6e- 
ing, would seem to be a finite verb, and in the active voice. " The army 
did not march, being ill provided/' implies cause ; " The army did not march 
ill provided/' implies condition. " Being admired and applauded, she be- 
came vain," is simply a little more forcible or formal than, "Admired and 
applauded, she became vain." It is thus that simple and compound parti- 
ciples approach so nearly in meaning that they are sometimes almost equiv- 
alent. 

A compound participle that consists of been placed between two parti- 
ciples that end each with ing, is frequently found ; as, " having been stand- 
ing." But a compound participle that consists of being combined with 
some other participle that also ends with ing, is seldom found ; as, " being 
standing." Good writers generally prefer to change the form of expres- 
sion ; as, " The inhabitants, being starving, surrendered " ; better, " The 
inhabitants, being in a starving condition, surrendered." 

From what has thus far been said of participles, we may infer, — 

1. That intransitive verbs have three participles, or participial forms, — the. 
present, the perfect, and the compound ; as, Rising, risen, having risen. 

Risen is used chiefly in combination, having risen is used alone. 

2. That transitive verbs have six participles, three in each voice, — the pres- 
ent, the perfect, and the compound; but that of these six the perfect active 
can be used onlv in combination with have, thus leaving but/«e participles 
that can be used alone. We may also observe that the compound participle 
has three forms. 



VERBS. 157 

Ex. — Active : Building, -built, having built. 

Passive: Bting built, built, having been built. 
Compound : Being built, having built, having been built. 
Observe here that being built is not only a somewhat clumsy form, but that it does 
not strictly express the progressive passive sense 5 therefore building is sometimes com- 
pelled to serve in its place. Observe also that the active built has the same form as the 
passive ; but as the passive was more needed, the active built left the field to the pas- 
sive, and having built came in to supply the place of the former. 

Syntax of Participles. 

499e A participle may express something subordinate, — 

As the cause. " John, being tired, went to bed." 

As the means. " The horse charged upon the wolves, striking them with 

his fore feet." 
As the manner. " The cars came rattli?ig." — See Southey's Lodore. 
As the time. "Having taken shelter here, he saw an ant/' etc. 
As the state. " He became attached to us." 
As the accompaniment. " She sat near, reading a book." 
As the condition. "Circling round, you may approach on the other side." 
As the respect wherein. " I consider him. as having lost his right." 

50©« A participle may be used, — 

Chiefly as a verb. " Seeing me, he approached." 

Chiefly as an adjective. " States severed, discordant, belligerent." 

Wholly as an adjective. "Interesting stories." "Farming utensils." 

Chiefly as an adverb. 4i The horse sleeps standing" (How?) 

Wholly as an adverb. H Scalding hot." 

Partially as a noun. "By sending those books immediately." 

W T holly as a noun. "By the immediate sending of those books." 

In combination with the auxiliary be, to express the passive form. "They 

were shot." 
In combination with the auxiliary be, to express the progressive form. 

" They were shooting" 
In combination with .the auxiliary have, to express the perfect tenses. " I 

have seen." " I had seen" " I shall have seen.' 7 
Absolutely with a substantive. " The bells having rung, we went to church." 
Absolutely after an infinitive. " To go prepared, is necessary." 
Independently, in the sense of a clause. " Generally speaking, few men," etc. 

, 501 • In its substantive sense the participle may be used, — 

As the subject of a verb. *' Reading is taught daily." 

As the object of a verb. " He teaches reading and writing" 

As the object of a preposition. " By reading the book." 

As a predicate-nominative. " To die for her is serving thee." — Holmes. 

This last construction occurs so frequently in good writers that it must be allowed when 
the sense is obvious, especially in verse 5 though the infinitive would be better, for is 
serving might in some constructions appear to be a verb. 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Participles and Infinitives. 
Agreements. 

502. Participles and infinitives have voice, something of 
tense, but neither person nor number. 

5©3o Participles and infinitives are annexed to auxiliary 
verbs, to express all those parts of the verb which it can not 
express by itself. 

504. Participles and infinitives partake of the nature of 
nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. 

505 • Participles and infinitives lose the idea of time as they 
become nouns or adjectives. 

506. Participles and Infinitives become verbal nouns when 
they assume case ; and they may then be used in any case ex- 
cept the possessive. 

" To be despised is the consequence of meddling." What is? and of what? 

Mr. Gould Brown repudiates this extension of case. But case, in English, is a relation 
as well as a form of words 5 and had he been better acquainted with foreign languages, 
especially the Greek, in which the article is even declined before the infinitive, he would 
probably have come to a different conclusion. 

Only participles that end with trig, and compound participles, can 
be used as nouns. 

507. By virtue of their verbal sense, verbal nouns may gov- 
ern other substantives in the objective case, or be modified ad- 
verbially. 

Ex. — " To consider \ sometimes the consequences of our actions, is our duty." 
Such participles and infinitives may be parsed first as participles and infinitives, and 
then they may be disposed of substantively in syntax. 

Differences. 

508. Participles are combined with the auxiliaries be and 
have; infinitives, with all other auxiliaries. 

Participles. Infinitives. 

I am wilting. I can [to] study. 

I was struck. I did [to] study. 

I had been writing. I might [to] have studied, 

I have written. I shall [to] study. 

To is used here simply to show the infinitives ; for the infinitives of these old syntactical 
combinations never had to, but an ending in the place of it. 



VERBS. 159 

W. The ground is froze. The sun has rose. 

My horse was stole. The coat is wore out. 

The slate is broke. I might have went. 

So, on the contrary, participles should not be used for the past tense. 
I seen him. (See p. 122.) He done it. He begun well. 
We drunk but little. I knowed it. — See T-3G9. 

509. Participles are used after prepositions ; infinitives are 
generally required in connection with finite verbs. 

Ex. — " You will lose nothing by helping him." 
" To defer the matter is to give it up." . 

510. Participles may become concrete, and even assume 
number; infinitives never do, but remain strictly abstract. 

Ex. — "To lodge in comfortable lodgings." 

511. A participle, by virtue of its substantive sense, may 
govern the possessive case ; an infinitive, never. 

Ex. — " He made no secret of my \ having written the review." — Irving. 

Such possessives are condemned by Mr. Brown ; but they are abundantly authorized 
by good writers. It is sometimes better, however, to use, in stead of the participle, ar- 
ordinary noun, or a clause beginning with that. 

512. A participial noun may become so nearly a full noun, 
as to require an adjective rather than an adverb. 

Ex. — " By carefully reading the book." "By a careful reading of the 

book." " By slow marching." But, " To march slowly J' 

Only participles that end with ing, can be used as such nouns. 

All participles thus deprived of their verbal syntax should be parsed simply as parti- 
cipial nouns. 

513* A participle sometimes becomes an adjective ; an in- 
finitive, never. 

Ex. — Participial Adjectives : " A broken pitcher " \ " Life's fleet- 
ing moments." Sometimes the participle becomes a mere adjective ; as, 
" This is surprising " — wonderful. — See p. 221. 

Only the simple participles can be used as adjectives. 

514. Infinitives lean more to predicates and substantives; 
participles, to modifiers. 

Participles and infinitives form a very important circuit of expres- 
sions between finite verbs and other parts of speech. 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

CONJUGATION. 

515. The Conjugation of a verb is the proper combi- 
nation and arrangement of its parts, in their full order. 

'* In their full order," — that is, in all the persons and numbers of each mood, tense, etc. 

Conjugation embraces all the persons and numbers •, synopsis, only one person and 
number. 

51G. A Synopsis of a verb is only an outline of it, 
which shows its parts in a single person and number, 
through the moods and tenses. 

Synopsis of write, with /", through the indicative mood : — 

Present, I write. Present- Perfect, I have written. 

Past, I wrote. Past-Perfect, I had written. 

Future, / shall write. Future-Perfect, / shall have written. 

517. Most forms of the verb consist of auxiliaries 
combined with participles or infinitives ; and such forms 
may be called composite. 

The present and the past are the forms mostly used 
without auxiliary verbs. 

In general, verbs branch out thus: They have moods : moodr, have 
tenses ; tenses have forms ; and forms have persons and numbers. 

518. The irregular verb BE is conjugated thus : — 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present. Past. Present Participle. Perfect Participle 

Be or am, was, being, been. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

First Person. I am, 1. We are, 

Second Person. You are, 2. You are, 

Third Person. He, she, or it, is ; 3. They are. 
Formerly, be was used in stead of am, are, is, etc. 



VERBS. 161 

Present-Perfect Tense, 
Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 have been, 1. We have been, 

2. You have been, 2. You have been, 

3. He has been; 3. They have been. 

Past Tense. 

1. I was, 1. We were, 

2. You were, 2. You were, 

3. He was; 3. They were. 

Past-Perfect Tense. 

1. I had been, 1. We had been, 

2. You had been, 2. You had been, 

3. He had been ; 3. They had been. 

Future Tense. 

Simple futurity; foretelling. 

1. I shall be, 1. We shall be, 

2. You will be, 2. You will be, 

3. He will be ; 3. They will be. 

Promise, threat, or determination. 

1. I will be, 1. We will be, 

2. You shall be, 2. You shall be, 

3. He shall be ; 3. They shall be. 

Future-Perfect Tense. 

Simple futurity; foretelling. 

1. I shall have been, 1. We shall have been, 

2. You will have been, 2. You will have been, 

3. He will have been ; 3. They will have been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, 

1. If I be, 1. If we be, ' 

2. If you be, 2. If you be, 

3. If he be; 3. If they be. 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Past Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were, Were I, 1. If we were, Were we, 

2. If you were, Were you, 2. If you were, Were you, 

3. Ifhewere;or, Were he; 3. If they were; or, Were they. 

Past-Perfect Tense. 

1. If I had been, 1. If we had been, 

2. If you had been, 2. If you had been, 

3. If he had been ; 3. If they had been. 

Or thus : — 

1. Had I been, 1. Had we been, 

2. Had you been, 2. Had you been, 

3. Had he been ; 3. Had they been. 

POTENTIAL MOOP 
Present Tense. 

1. I may be, 1. We may be, 

2. You may be, 2. You may be, 

3. He may be ; 3. They may be. 
In the same way conjugate can be and must be. 

Present-Perfect Tense. 

1. I may have been, 1. We may have been, 

2. You may have been, 2. You may have been, 

3. He may have been ; 3. They may have been. 
In the same way conjugate must have been and " Can I have been?" 

Past Tense. 

1. I might be, 1. We might be, 

2. You might be, 2. You might be, 

3. He might be ; 3. They might be. 
In the same way conjugate could be> would be, and should be. 

Past-Perfect Tense. 

1. I might have been, 1. We might have been, 

2. You might have been, . 2. You might have been, 

3. He might have been ; 3. They might have been. 

In the same way conjugate could have been, vwuld have been, and should 
have been. 



VERBS. 163 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

2. Be thou ; or, Do thou be. 2. Be ye ; or, Do ye be. 

Present. Perfect. Compound. 

INFINITIVES. — To be. To have been. 

PARTICIPLES. — Being. Been. Having been. 

Synopsis of the verb be, with thou. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, Thou art. 

Presejit-Perfed Tense, Thou hast been. 

Past Tense, Thou wast, or wert. 

Past-Perfect Zense, Thou hadst been. 

Future Tense, Thou shalt or wilt be. 

Future- Perfect Tense, Thou shalt or wilt have been. 

"Thou wert, thou art, the cherished madness of my heart." — Byron, 
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, If thou be. 

Past Tense, If thou wert ; or, Wert thou. 

Past-Perfect Tense, If thou hadst been ; or, Hadst thou been. 

" If thou were" aud " If thou had been" are sometimes used by good writers. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense, Thou mayst, canst, or must be. 
Present- Perfect Tense, Thou mayst, canst, or must have been. 
Past Tense, Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst be. 
Past-Perfect Tense, Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst 
have been. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, Be thou ; or, Do thou be. 
8 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

519. The regular verb ROW is conjugated thus : — 
PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present Past. Present Participle. Perfect Participle. 

Bow, rowed, rowing, rowed. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I row, 1. We row, 

2. You row, 2. You row, 

3. He rows ; 3. They row. 

Q^~ Let the verbs love, rule, permit, carry, strike, and see, be now conju- 
gated in the same way by other members of the class. So, in each following 
tense. 

Emphatic Form. 

Do, combined with the present infinitive,* 

. 1. I do row, 1. We do row, 

2. You do row, 2. You do row, 

3. He does row ; 3. They do row. 

Present-Perfect Tense. 
Have, combined with the perfect participle. 

1. I have rowed, 1. We have rowed, 

2. You have rowed, 2. You have rowed, 

3. He has rowed ; 3. They have rowed. 

In the solemn style, hath, roweth, and doth row are used for has, rows, and 
does row. 

Past Tense. 

1. I rowed, 1. We rowed, 

2. You rowed, 2. You rowed, 

3. He rowed; 3. They rowed. 

* The infinitive, in combining with auxiliary verbs, drops the sign to ; and 
these composite forms tend to snow that the present should be considered the 
present infinitive rather than the present indicative ; but since the latter is also 
needed as a principal part, it may be well to call the present either. 

The English infinitive, as we have already said, formerly had the ending an or 
en instead of the prefix to; and hence such primitive combinations of verbs as 
must have been made with auxiliaries, are without the sign to. 



VERBS. 165 

Emphatic Form. 

Did, combined with the present infinitive. 
Singular. ' Plural, 

1. I did row, I. We did row, 

2. You did row, 2. You did row, 

3. He did row ; 3. They did row. 

Past-Perfeet Tense. 

Had, combined with the perfect participle. 

1. I had rowed, 1. We had rowed, 

2. You had rowed, 2. You had rowed, 

3. He had rowed ; 3. They had rowed* 

Future Tense. 

Shall or will, combined with the present infinitive. 
Simple futurity ; foretelling. 

1. I shall row, 1. We shall row, 

2. You will row, 2. You will row, 

3. He will row ; 3. They will row. 

Promise, threat, or determination. 

1. I will row, 1. We will row, 

2. You shall row, 2. You shall row, 

3. He shall row ; 3. They shall row. 

Future-Perfect Tense. 

Shall or will, combined with the perfect infinitive. 
Simple futurity ; foretelling. 

1. I shall have rowed, 1. We shall have rowed. 

2. You will have rowed, 2. You will have rowed, 

3. He will have rowed ; 3. They will have rowed. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

The tenses of the subjunctive mood are formed like those of the indicative. 

Present llense. 

1. If I row, 1. If we row, 

2. If you row, 2. If you row, 

3. If he row ; 3. If they row. 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Emphatic Form* 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I do row, 1. If we do row, 

2. If you do row, 2, If you do row, 

3. If he do row ; 3. If they do row. 

• Past Tense. 

1. If I rowed, 1. If we rowed, 

2. If you rowed, 2. If you rowed, 

3. If he rowed ; 3. If they rowed. 

Emphatic Form. 

1. If I did row, 1. If we did row, 

2. If you did row, 2. If you did row, 

3. If he did row ; 3. If they did row. 

Past-Perfect Tense. 

1. If I had rowed, 1. If we had rowed, 

2. If you had rowed, 2. If you had rowed, 

3. If he had rowed ; 3 If they had rowed. 

Or thus : — 

1. Had I rowed, 1. Had we rowed, 

2. Had you rowed, 2. Had you rowed, ■ 

3. Had he rowed ; 3. Had they rowed. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

May, can, or must, combined with the present infinitive. 

1. I may row, 1. We may row, 

2. You may row, 2. You may row, 

3. He may row ; 3. They may row. 

Present-Perfect Tense, 
May, can, or must, combined with the perfect infinitive. 

1. I may have rowed, 1. We may have rowed, 

2. You may have rowed, 2. You may have rowed, 

3. He may have rowed ; 3. They may have rowed. 
In the same way conjugate must have rowed. 



VERBS. 167 

Past Tense. 

Might, could) would) or should) combined with the present infinitive. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might row, 1. We might row, 

2. You might row, 2. You might row, 

3. He might row; 3. They might row. 
In the same v>ay conjugate could row, would row, and should row. 

Past-Perfect Tense. 

Might) could) would) or should) combined with the perfect infinitive, 

1. I might have rowed, 1. We might have rowed, 

2. You might have rowed, 2. You might have rowed, 

3. He might have rowed; 3. They might have rowed. 

In the same way conjugate could have rowed, would have rowed, and should 
have rowed. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

2. Row thou ; or, Do thou row. 2. Row ye ; or, Do ye row. 

Present. Perfect. Compound. 

INFINITIVES. — To row. To have rowed. 
PARTICIPLES. — Rowing. * Rowed. Having rowed. 

Synopsis of the verb row, with thou. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense) Thou rowest, or dost row. 
Present-Perfect Tense, Thou hast rowed. 
Past Tense, Thou rowedst, or didst row. 
Past-Perfect Tense, Thou hadst rowed. 
Future Tense, Thou shalt or wilt row. 
Future- Perfect Tense, Thou shalt or wilt have rowed. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, If thou row, or do row. 
Past Tense, If thou rowed, didst row, or did row. 
Past-Perfect Tense, If thou hadst rowed. 

* The simple perfect participle of a transitive verb, in the active voice, is used only in 
combination with the auxiliary verb have. 



168 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 
Present Tense, Thou mayst, canst, or must row. 
Present-Perfect Tense, Thou mayst, canst, or must have rowed. 
Past Tense, Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst row. 
Past-Perfect Tense, Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst 
have rowed. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Prese7it Tense, Row thou ; or, Do thou row. 



The Passive Form and the Progressive Form of the Verb Row* 

The passive or the progressive form of any tense consists of the 
corresponding tense of the verb be, combined with the simple perfect 
or present participle. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. 

Neuter. Passive. Progressive, 

• ( 1. I am rowed, rowing, 

% < 2. You are rowed, rowing, 

& ( 3. He is rowed; rowing ; 

Plural. 

1. We are rowed, rowing, 

2. You are rowed, rowing, 

3. They are rowed, rowing. 

The pupil should first conjugate through 
each three persons the verb 6e, then the 
passive verb, then the verb in the progres- 
sive form. 

Present-Perfect Tense. 

Singular. 

1. I have been rowed, rowing, 

2. You have been rowed, rowing, 

3. He has been roived; rowing; 

Plural. 

1. We have been rowed, rowing, 

2. You have been rowed, rowing, 

3. They have been rowed, rowing. 



Past Tense. 

Singular. 

1. I was rowed, rowing, 

2. You were rowed, rowing, 

3. He was rowed; rowing ; 

Plural. 

1. We were rowed, rowing, 

2. You were rowed, rowing, 

3. They were rowed, rowing. 

Past-Perfect Tense. 

Singular. 

1. I had been rowed, rowing, 

2. You had been rowed, rowing, 

3. He had been rowed; rowing; 

Plural. 

1. We had been rowed, rowing, 

2. You had been rowed, rowing, 

3. They had been rowed, rowing. 

Future Tense. 

Simple futurity 5 foretelling. 

Singular. 

1. I shall be rowed, rowing, 

2. You will be rowed, rowing, 

3. He will be rowed; rowing; 



VERBS. 



169 



Plural. 

1. We shall be rowed, rowing, 

2. You will be rowed, rowing, 

3. They will be rowed, rowing. 

Promise, threat, or determination. 
Singular. 

1. I will be rowed, rowing, 

2. You shall be rowed, rowing, 

3. He. shall be rowed; rowing; 

Plural. 

1. We will be rowed, rowing, 

2. You shall be rowed, rowing, 

3. They shall be rowed, rowing. 

Future-Perfect Tense. 

Simplo futurity ; foretelling. 

Singular. 

1. I shal 1 . have been rowed, rowing, 

2. You will have been rowed, rowing, 

3. He will have been rowed ; rowing; 

Plural. 

1. We shall have been rowed, rowing, 

2. You will have been rowed, rowing, 

3. They will have been rowed, rowing. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. 

1. If I be rowed, rowing, 

2. If you be rowed, rowing, 

3. If he be rowed : rowing ; 

Plural. 

1 . If we be rowed, rowing, 

2. If you be rowed, rowing, 

3. If they be rowed, rowing. 

Past Tense. 

Singular. 

1. If I were rowed, rowing, 

2. If you were rowed, rowing, 

3. If he were roived; rowing ; 



Plural. 

1. If we were rowed, rotting, 

2. If you were rowed, rowing, 

3. If they were rowed, rowing. 

Or thus : — 
Singular. 

1. Were I rowed, rowing, 

2. Were you rowed, rowing, 

3. Were he rowed ; rowing ; 

Plural. 

1. Were we rowed, rowing, 

2. Were you rowed, rowing, 

3. Were, they rowed, rowing. 

Past-Perfect Tense. 

Singular. 

1. If I had been rowed, rowing, 

2. If you had been rowed, rowing, 

3. If he had been rowed ; rowing ; 

Plural. 

1. If we had been rowed, rowing, 

2. If you had been rowed, rowing, 

3. If they had been rowed, rowing. 

Or thus : — 
Singular. 

1. Had I been rowed, rowing, 

2. Had you been rowed, rowing, 

3. Had he b*en rowed; rowing; 

Plural. 

1. Had we been rowed, rovnng, 

2. Had you been rowed, rowing, 

3. Had they been rowed, rowing. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. 

1. I may be rowed, rowing 

2. You may be rowed, rowing, 

3. He may be rowed ; rowing; 



170 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Plural. 

1. We may be rowed, rowing, 

2. You may be rowed, rowing, 
B, They may be rowed, rowing. 

In like manner conjugate can be and 
must be. 

Present-Perfect Tense. 

SINGULAR. 

1. I may have been rowed, rowing, 

2. You may have been rowed, rowing, 

3. He may have been rovjed' } rowing; 

Plural. 

1. We may have been rowed, rowing, < 

2. You may have been rowed, rowing, 

3. They may have been rowed, rowing. 

In like manner conjugate must have 
been. 

Past Tense. 

Singular. 
1. 1 might be rowed, rowing, 
2, You might be rowed, rowing, 
S, He might be rowed; rowing ; 

Plural. 

1. We might be rowed, rowing, 

2. You might be rowed, rowing, 

3. They might be rowed, rowing. 

In like manner conjugate could be, 
would be, and should be. 



Past-Perfect Tense. 

Singular. 

1. I might have been rowed, rowing, 

2. You might have been rowed, rowing, 

3. He might have been rowed; rowing; 

Plural. 

1. We might have been rowed, rowing, 

2. You might have been rowed, rowing, 

3. They might have been rowed, rowing. 

In like manner conjugate could have 
been, would have been, and should have 
been. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. 

2. Be thou rowed ; rowing y 

Plural. 
2. Be ye rowed, rowing. 

INFINITIVES. 



Present. 
Perfect. 



To be rowed, rowing. 

To have been rowed, rowing. 



PARTICIPLES. 



Present. 
Perfect. 



Being 



rowed, 
Ro77ed. 



Compound. Having been rowed, rowing. 

The synopsis with thou is similar to the synopsis given on p. 163. 

When neither of the foregoing forms of the verb can express the progres- 
sive passive sense, the compound present passive participle is sometimes 
joined to the verb be in stead of the simple perfect or present participle ; in 
other words, being is put into the common passive verb, between the auxiliary 
and the participle. These clumsy forms, however, are usually tolerated only 
in the present and the past indicative and the past subjunctive. — See p. 307. 

Plural. 

1. We are being educated, 

2. You are being educated, 

3. They are being educated. 

1. We were being educated, 

2. You were being educated, 

3. They were being educated. 

1. If we were being educated, 

2. If you were being educated, 

3. If they were being educated, 



Singular. 
_ f 1. I am being educated, 
Present in- ,j 2> y ou are being: educated, 
dicative. ^ 3# He is being educated . 

•d ♦ t a- fl- I was being educated, 

ative" * 2 * You were bein 2 educflted > 
[ 3. He was being educated; 

*d of a -k fl* If I were being educated, 
«f™2Sr \ 2 - If vou were being educated, 
junctive. | 8# If he were being Educated; 



VERBS. 171 



Exercises. 

How many and what tenses has the indicative mood ? — the subjunctive f 

— the potential ? — the imperative ? What infinitives are there ? — what 
participles ? 

In what mood and tense do you find do?— did? — have? — had? — 
shall or will? — shall or will have? — may, can, or must? — mat/, can, or 
must have ? — m'ujht, could, would, or should? — might, could, would, or should 
have ? 

What is the sign of the present indicative ? — the past ? — the future ? — 
the present-perfect? — the past-perfect ? — the future? — the future-per- 
fect? — the present subjunctive ? — the past? — the past-perfect? — the 
present potential ? — tne pre&ent-perfect ? — the past ? — the past-perfect ? 

Change the following verbs into the other tenses of the same mood : — 
I write. I may write. If I write. If I be writing. 

Change into the other forms of the same tense : — He strikes. He struck. 
He has struck. You rule. You ruled. You ljave ruled. 

Give, in the order of the Conjugation, the infinitives, then the parti- 
ciples ; first in the active voice, and then in the passive, if the verb can 
have the passive voice : — Move, rise, spring, degrade, drown, invigorate, 
overwhelm, bleed. 

Give the synopsis of the verb be with /, through each tense of all the 
moods ; first affirmatively throughout, then interrogatively, then negatively; 

— with thou; — with he; — with they; — with you. Now of / and he to- 
gether, or in pairs, through all the tenses ; — of he and they ; — of you and 
thou. 

Give in like manner the synopsis of see, through both voices ; of love, 
bind, carry, and permit; — of me, in the progressive form. 

Give thou with each auxiliary except be; — give he; — give they. 

How do the indicative and the subjunctive mood agree and differ in 
form ? 

Conjugate each of the following verbs, beginning with the first person 
singular/ and stopping with the subject : — The boy learns. (Thus : Sih* 
gtjlar, 1st person, I learn ; 2d person, You learn; 3d person, He, or the 
hoy, learns) The leaves are falling Flowers must fade. Jane reads. 
Jane and Eliza read. Jane or Eliza reads. 

Tell of what mood and tense, then conjugate throughout the tense, be- 
ginning with the first person singular : — I imagine He suffered. We 
have lost it. I had been ploughing. I will visit. Were I. Had I been. 
If he were. Were I invited. Had I been invited. If I be invited. I hey 
shall have written. I lay. We read. It may pass. You should have 
come. We mav have been robbed. I was speaking. It is rising. ¥ou 
might be preparing. Had you been studying. Do you nope ? Diet she 
smile? Ifldofail. If thou rely. Thou art. Art thou? He forgiveth. 
I Dost thou not forgive ? It must have happened. They are gone. I nou 
''art going. 

Predicate each of the following verbs correctly of thou; then of he, and 
f they: — Am, was, have been, would have been, are deceived, had been, 
do Bay, did maintain, gave, touched, east, amass, recommend, be discour- 
aged, 'shall have been, will pardon, may have been rejoicing, was elected, 
should have been elected. 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The verbs, and why : — 

Regular or irregular, and why : — 

Transitive or intransitive, and why ; with voice, and why : — 

Mood and tense, and why ; with emphatic or progressive form, and why: — 

Person and number, and why : — 

He is reading the Bible. We have slept. She died. Were 
we surpassed. You had sent him. Take care, lest you lose it. 
My time might have been improved better. The corn was 
ripening. The wind has risen. 

Frr additional exercises, if needed, use the examples on p. 104. The best mode of 
drilling pupils on verbs is simply this : Whenever the pupil parses a verb, let him give 
the synopsis of it through all the preceding moods, or only through the mood in which it 
is, to the tense in which it is found; then let him conjugate it to the person and number 
of its subject. By this process he will soon become master of all parts of the verb. 

ADVERBS. 

520. An Adverb is a word used to modify the mean- 
ing, — 

1. Of a verb. " She sings well." Sings how ? 

2. Of an adjective. " Very deep." How deep ? 

8. Of another adverb. " To run very fast." How fast ? 

4. Of a phrase. " He sailed nearly | round the world." 

5. Of a clause. "Even | as a miser counts his gold, 

Those hours the ancient time-piece told." 

Even emphasizes the adverbial clause after it •, and this clause modifies told. 
A phrase or a clause sometimes has the meaning of an adjective or an adverb •, and 
therefore an adverb can modify such a phrase or clause. 

521. Words from other parts of speech, especially when 
imitative, are sometimes used as adverbs. 

k - Smack went the whip, round went the wheels." — Cowper. 

522. Some idiomatic phrases are commonly used as 
adverbs, and are therefore called adverbial phrases. 

In general = generally. In vain, as yet, 

By and by = soon. at least, in short, 

At present = now. at last, out and out. 

Most adverbial phrases are adjuncts from which the noun has been dropped. 

523. Most adverbs modify other words by expressing 
manner, place, time, or degree. 



ADVERBS. 173 

Frequently, an adverb denotes manner when it modifies a verb, 
and degree when it modifies an adjective or an adverb. 

" He thinks so"; manner. " He writes so awkwardly " ; degree. 
" How did you do it? " manner. " I know how deep it is " ; degree. 

524, A Conjunctive Adverb is an adverb that usu- 
ally connects two clauses, by relating to a word in one 
and forming a part of the other. 

When, while, as, before, till, ere, 

where, why, how, after, since, whereby, etc. 

" The seed grew up where it fell." 

Wliere relates to grew and fell, or it joins to the word grew a clause denot- 
ing place. " The seed grew up from the place \ on which it fell." Where is 
thus resolved into two phrases, which attach themselves respectively to each 
of the clauses, and the latter of which has a relative pronoun. 

Sometimes a conjunctive adverb joins a phrase to some word or clause, in stead of 
uniting two clauses. 

525t The clause which has the conjunctive adverb, is 
used in the sense of an adverb, an adjective, or a noun. 

" You speak of it a s you understand it." How ? 

" In the grave w here our hero was buried" What grave ? 

" I saw how a pin is made." I saw what ? 

A conjunctive adverb shows merely whether its clause expresses man* 
ner, time', place, or identity; and it is sometimes essentially a preposition or 
a conjunction. 

526, Sometimes the antecedent or correlative adverb 
is expressed, and then the latter adverb modifies its own 
clause, or annexes an identifying explanation. 

Ex. — "I was there | where it happened." Where it happened, is 
explanatory of there, somewhat like an appositive". So, "Now, while 
it is cool, let us work." "As the mother is, so will the daughter be." 

527# Some adverbs of addition, exclusion, emphasis, or 
quantity, may relate to any part of a sentence. 

Ex. — " But c h i efty Thou, O Spirit, .... instruct me." — Milton. 
" Take, O boatman, thrice thy fee" 
" Can n o t you go ? " " Can you not go ? " are different. 

Such a word is sometimes best parsed as an adjective, and sometimes as a 
conjunction, or as a correlative or auxiliary conjunction. 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

528t Some adverbs are the equivalents of independent 
propositions, and some appear as remnants and representa- 
tives of such propositions. Such adverbs are said to be 
used independently. 

Ex. — Yes, no, amen, well, why, secondly, nay, thus. 
u Yes; there is a remedy." " So, so; and this is the way," etc. 
" Well, I hardly know what to say." " Why, you must be crazy. 59 
" Thus, in France common carriers are not liable for robbery." 

Such an adverb may sometimes be parsed as modifying the entire sentence 
or the preceding sentence or discourse, or else something understood ; and 
sometimes perhaps better as a conjunction or an interjection, for most such 
adverbs have more or less the nature of conjunctions or interjections. 

529. Adverbs are short equivalents for phrases or pro- 
positions. 

Now = at this time. Thus = in this manner. 

There = in that place. In vain = in a vain manner. 

• Where = in what place. Occasionally — as occasion requires. 

A conjunctive adverb generally supplies the place of two phrases; as, " She 
was buried when [at the time | in which time] the sun was setting." 

530. Many adverbs are compound words. 
Ex. — Indeed, forever, hereafter, whithersoever, afoot. 

531. Most adverbs are formed from adjectives, by an- 
nexing ly, sometimes s, to the adjective. 

Ex. — Brave, bravely ; easy, easily ; upward, upwards. 

Many of the most common modifying words can be 
used in the same form either as adjectives or as adverbs. 

Ex. — No, well, better, best, very, more, most, hard, long, like, 
less ? least, worse, worst, ill, yonder, fast, late, early. 
" He is no fool " ; adjective. " He is no better" ; adverb. 
"Few men, like him, fight" ; adj. "Few men fight like him" ; adv. 

532. In poetry and in compound words, the adjective 

form or comparison is allowed to a greater extent than 

elsewhere. 

u The swallow sings sweet from her nest in the wall." — Dimond. 
Here sweet is an adverb, used by poetic license for the adverb sweetly. 






ADVERBS. 1*5 

u Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian sprmg." — Pope. 

Here deep is an adverb, used, by ellipsis, for the objective phrase deep draughts* 

u Though thou wert firmlier fastened than a rock." — Milton, 
" By the verdurous banks of a S77?i%>^-gliding stream." — Moore. 
It is sometimes difficult to tell whether a given word is or should 
be an adjective or an adverb. 

533. To express manner or describe the act, the ad- 
Verb should be used; to describe the object, the adjective, 

" Things look [are] favorable this morning " ; adj. 
" He looks skillfully at the moon, through his telescope." How ? 
M We arrived safe " ; i. e., we were safe when we arrived. 
W. She looks beautifully in her new silk dress. 

534, When the verb he or become can be joined to the 
verb, or put in its place, the modifying word is or should 
be an adjective. 

" The waves dashed high" ; i. e., they were high, and dashed, 

" Soft blows the breeze " ; i. e., it is soft, and blows. 

" He spoke better " ; adv. " He seemed better, felt better " ; adj. 

535« A word may remain an adjective, and qualify a 
substantive, when the adjoining verb shows merely how 
the quality is acquired or made known. 

11 The clay burns white." " The milk tastes sour." 

" The glass was colored blue." " Magnesia feels smooth." 

" Amid her smiles her blushes lovelier glow ." 

" How much nearer he approaches to this end! " 

The verbs look, appear, taste, feel, smell, make, and other verbs 
that imply transformation of the subject, are most commonly asso- 
ciated with such adjectives. 

In the sentence, u Previous to the next draft, an enrollment of all the men. 
will be made,*' — Newspaper, — previous relates to the entire following propo- 
sition; or, rather, previous to has fallen into the analogy of the prepositions ac- 
cording to and contrary to. — See p. 300. 

5S6i Sometimes an adverb becomes a noun. 

Ex. — " For once" " By far the best." " We have enough" 

Much, little, and enough, are generally nouns after transitive verbs ', adverbs, after 
intransitive. 



176 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 
537i Adverbs are compared like adjectives ; except 
that a smaller number can be compared, and that these 
are more commonly compared by more and most. 



Soon, sooner, soonest. 
Long, longer, longest. 
Early, earlier, earliest. 



Regular* 

Wisely, more wisely, most toisely. 
Wisely, less wisely, least wisely. 
Foolishly, more foolishly, most foolishly. 



Irregular* 

Well, better, best. Little, less, least. 

Badly or ill, worse, worst. Forth, further, furthest 

Much, more, most. Far, farther, farthest. 

Compare the foregoing adverbs with the adjectives on p. 113. 



So, 

as, 

thus, 

how, 



CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 

1. Adverbs of Manner. 

well, otherwise, separately, aloud, 



ill, headlong, together, apart, 

like, fast, somehow, asunder, 

else, slowly, however, amiss, 

Most words that end with ly, are adverbs of manner. 
Adverbs of manner answer to the question How? 

2. Adverbs of Place. 
whither, nowhere, away, 



in vain, 
in brief, 
happily, 
trippingly. 



everywhere, aside, 
yonder, aloof, 



in, out, 

back, 

forth, 



Here, thence, 

there, whence, herein, 

where, hither, therein, 

hence, thither, wherein, far, off, up, down, forwards. 

Adverbs of place answer to the question Where? Whence? or Whither? 
and hence imply position or direction. 

3. Adverbs of Time. 

after, sometimes, 

lately, seldom, 

early, daily, 

again, forever, 

often, to-day, 

Adverbs of time answer to the question When? 
How soon ? or How long ago? and hence they denote present time, future 
time, relative time, duration, or repetition. 

Adverbs of Number. — Once, twice, thrice. These denote time. 
Adverbs of Order* — First, secondly, thirdly, etc. These denote either 
place or time. 



Now, 
when, 
then, 


always, 
already, 
as, 


ever, 


while, 


never, 


before, 



to-morrow, 

yesterday, 

immediately, 

hitherto, 

hereafter, 



since, 

till, 

yet, 

just, 

anon. 



How long ? How often ? 



so, 


wholly, 


even, 


chiefly, 


just, 


partlv, 


how, 


nearly, 


fully, 


all, 


however, 


well-nigh, 


fall, 


quite, 


enough, 


ever so, 


generally, 


scarcely, 


nevertheless, 


somewhat 



ADVERBS. 177 

4. Adverrs of Degree, Extent, or Quantity* 

Much, less, 

more, least, 

most, very, 

mostly, too, 

little, as, 

Adverbs of this class answer to the question, In what degree? To what 
extent f. or How much ? 

Adverbs from other classes can be frequently used as adverbs of degree. 

The following adverbs of the foregoing class are worthy of separate notice. 

Adverbs of Addition, Exclusion, or Emphasis. — Too, only, 
merely, but, especially, also, besides, else, still, likewise, even, not, particu- 
larly, moreover, withal, eke. 

5, Modal Adverbs. 
These show bow the statement is made or regarded. 

Of Affirmation or Approval. — Yes, yea, ay, verily, surely, cer« 
tainly, forsooth, indeed, truly, really, amen, of course, to be sure. 

Of Negation. — Not, nay, no, nowise, by no means. 

Of Doubt. — Perhaps, probably, perchance, may-be, haply. 

Of Cause or Means. — Why, therefore, wherefore, hereby, thereby, 
whereby, wherewith, whereof, accordingly, consequently, hence, thence, 
whence, etc. Some of these adverbs, as whereby, consist of a pronominal 
adcerb and a preposition, and may therefore be called adjunctive adverbs. 

Of Position. — There. " There was no one there." 

There, as used in such sentences, is a word that has withdrawn from the common 
vocabulary of significant words, and oecome simply a word of syntax ; having been ap- 
propriated by Language as something necessary "to run the machinery." There, thus 
used, simply serves to give the sentence another form, by allowing the words to assume a 
more emphatic arrangement. A similar remark is applicable to it, and some other words. 

Exercises. 

Mention six adverbs of manner : — six of place ; — six of time; — six of de- 
gree; — five different modal adverbs; — six conjunctive adverbs. 

Compare late, soon, early, much, little, well, ill, long, far, heroically. 

An adverb, and why ; of what hind, and what it modifies : — 

Wisely, now, here, very. The horse runs swiftly. God is 
everywhere. Never before did I see her look so pale. These, 
things have always been so. I have been too idle heretofore ; 
but henceforth I will study more diligently. Your book is 
more beautiful. He was lately here. The hall was brilliantly 
illuminated, and densely crowded with hearers. 

8* L 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

538. A Preposition is a word used to show the rela- 
tion between a following noun or pronoun and some other 
word. 

" The rabbit in the hollow tree was caught." What in what ? 
The substantive after the preposition must be in the objective case. 

539. Two prepositions are sometimes combined, and 
used as one ; and some phrases are generally used as prep- 
ositions. 

Ex. — Upon, according to, as to, as for. 

" The river flowed from under the palaces." 
Such phrases are sometimes called complex or compound prepositions. 

540. An Adjunct, or Prepositio7ial Phrase, is a prep- 
osition with its object, or with the words required after 
it to complete the sense. 

Ex. — u The wind swept in waves \ over the histling barley." 

An adjunct generally shows where, when, how, how Ion g, of what 

kind, by whom, by what means, etc. 

{under the bluff, 
Ex. — "A fox | of the largest size | was caught \ before sunrise, 

{ by our dogs." 

541 1 Some adjuncts maybe inverted or parted, espe- 
cially in poetry. 

Ex. — " Whom was it given to f " better, " To whom was it given ? " 

" From peak to peak, the rattling crags among." — Byron. 
That is, " From peak to peak, among the rattling crags." 

542i An adjunct may relate to, — 

1. A substantive. 

Ex. — " The caves \ of Kentucky are wonderful." What cave?? 

2. A verb. 

Ex. — " The river rises | in the mountains." Rises where ? 

3. An adjective. 

Ex. — " The river is clear \ in the mountains." Clear where ? 

4. An adverb. 

Ex. — " You have acted inconsistently \ with your professions" 



PREPOSITIONS. 179 

But when the adverb relates to the adjunct, then the adjunct relates to 
some other word; as, " You were far before us." Before us relates to were, 
mid far modifies before us. 

Sometimes an adjunct relates to a phrase; as, "You study grammar for 
your improvement in language." Here fur relates rather to study grammar 
than to study only. 

543. The substantive which follows the preposition, or 
is governed by it, may be, — 

1. A noun. 

Ex. — " The fox ran under the bluff." Under what ? 

2. A pronoun. 

Ex. — t% Come to me" To whom ? 

8. An infinitive. 
Ex. — " None knew thee but to love thee." Except what ? 

4. A participial noun. 

Ex. — " In the selling of their estate, a mistake was made." 

5. A participle that has case, yet retains the syntax of 
the verb. 

Ex. — " By carefully removing the difficulties, you may succeed." 

6. A clause. 

Ex. — " This will depend on who the commissioners are" 

"Reason and justice have been jurymen ever since \ be- 
fore Noah icas a sailor" — Shakespeare. 

544. Two or more prepositions may govern the same 
substantive. 

Ex. — " He walked up and down the hill" 

545 * Two or more substantives may be governed by 
the same preposition. 

Ex. — " A battle betw een Mexicans and Indians" 

" He left his estate to his wife, children, and friends." 

Two or more adjuncts may be combined. " The gold in apiece of quartz." 

The modified term, which commonly precedes the adjunct, is called 
the antecedent term ; and the governed substantive the subsequent term. 

546o Frequently, the adjunct precedes the word to 
which it relates, or is considerably removed from it. 
" On the next day, while we retreated, the enemy approached." 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

547. An adjunct is generally equivalent to an adverb 

or an adjective. 

Ex. — " He acted with wisdom " = He acted wisely. 

" A man of wisdom " = A wise man. 

" He is in misery " = He is miserable. 

Adjuncts can' supply the place of the possessive case ; as, "Absalom's beauty " 
= The beauty of Absalom. (See p. 97.) Sometimes an adjunct is equivalent 
to a participle or a verb; as, " He is in trouble " == He is 'troubled. Finally, 
adjuncts supply the deficiency of all other descriptive expressions, and often 
relieve them. I 

548a A preposition that has no word to govern, be- 
comes an adverb ; sometimes, a noun or an adjective. 
Ex. — " The eagle flew up, then round, then down again.*' 

" It fell from above." " It came from within." 
Above is a noun, or from above can be parsed as an adverbial phrase. 
" The forest overlooked the shaded plain below" — Dry den. 

Below is equivalent to the adjective adjunct below it, or the adjective clause which 
was below ; and it is therefore a definitive adjective. Below is a preposition or an ad- 
verb in regard to the omitted words-, and it becomes an adjective only as having assumed 
the office of an adjective phrase or clause, which it represents. 

549t Sometimes the object is merely omitted. 

' 4 The man you spoke of; i. e., of whom you spoke." 

il I have nothing to tie it with ; i. e., with which to tie it." 

55©i The antecedent term is sometimes omitted, or 
there is none. 

" Industrious all, from the youngest to the oldest" ; reckoning from, etc. 

" Sold at the rate of from fifty cents to a dollar ; " i. e., of prices varying 
from, etc. It seems to us that it would not be improper to parse the whole 
phrase after o/'as a noun. 

" As to riches, they are not worth so much care." 

551 o The preposition itself is sometimes omitted; espe- 
cially to, unto, or for, after like, unlike, near, nigh, worth, 
opposite, and verbs of giving or imparting. 

Ex. — " The house was near [to] the river, nearer [to] the river, next to < 
ours." " The son is like \to or unto] his father." " Opposite [to] the marJ 
ket." " Lend him your knife " = Lend your knife to him. " Give [to] us" 
our daily bread." " Who departed [from] this life," etc. 

The adjective or adverb has essentially absorbed the preposition ; and it might 
therefore be called a prepositional adjective or adverb, governing the object. 



PREPOSITIONS. 181 

552. Prepositions are much used as parts of compound 
words ; and when thus used, they are generally adverbial. 
Ex. — Overshoot, undermine, uphold, income, afterthought. 

LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. 

Learn the List, and tell between what words each preposition shows the relation. 
A. " We went a fishing." " This set people a thinking." — Swift. 
Aboard, " To go or be aboard a ship." 
About* " To run about the house." " To dine about noon." 
Above. " The stars above us." " To be above meanness." 
Across. " A tree lying across the road." 
After. " To start after dinner." 
Against. " We rowed against the stream." 
Along. " The cloud is gilded along the border." 
Amid, amidst. " The rogues escaped amidst the confusion." 
Among, amongst. " Flowers perish among weeds." 
Around, round. " The ring around his finger." " To sail round the 
At. " She lives at home." " The sun sets at six o'clock." [world." 

Athwart. " Why advance thy miscreated front athwart my way ? " 
Before. " The tree before the house." " To rise before day." 
Behind. " The squirrel hid behind the tree." 
Below* " The James River is very crooked below Richmond." 
Beneath. " The chasm beneath us." " He is beneath contempt." 
Beside, besides. " A large sycamore grew beside the river." 
Between. " The river flows between two hills." 
Betwixt. " He was crushed to death betwixt two cars." 
Beyond. " The life beyond the grave is a mystery/' 
But. " Whence all bid him had fled." 
By. " A lily by a brook." " Demolished by soldiers." 
Concerning. " He spoke concerning virtue." 
Down. " The boat went down the river." 
During. M He remained abroad during the war." 
Ere. " He came ere noon." 

Except, excepting. " All except him were set free." 
For. " To sell for money." " A collection for the poor, 
From. "A branch from the tree." " To judge from the description," 
In. " A pond in a meadow." " To play in the afternoon." 
Into. " To step into a carriage, and then ride in it." 
Notwithstanding. " He succeeded, notwithstanding the opposition." 
Of. " The house of& friend." " To die of a, disease." 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Off. " Juan Fernandez lies o^the coast of Chili." 

On. " The picture on the wall." " To start on Tuesday." 

Over. " The bridge over the river." " To rule over a nation." 

Past. " They drove past the house." 

Respecting. " Respecting his conduct, there is but one opinion." 

Save. " All save him remained." 

Since. " He has not been here since last Christmas." 

Till, until. " He will remain her^ till next Christmas." 

To, unto. " To go to the river." "Verily, I say unto you." 

Toward, towards. " He came towards me." 

Through. " To travel through woods and swamps." 

Throughout. M There was commotion throughout the whole land." 

Under. " The earth under our feet." " To be under age." 

Underneath. " Underneath this sable hearse lies the subject of all verse." 

Up. " He climbed up the tree." a \ pJJ*s 

Upon. " The people stood upon the house-tops." 0»J 

With. " Girls with sparkling eyes." " x Enameled with flowers." 

Within. " The war will end within the next six months." 

Without. "A purse without money." " To live without company." 

According to. " It was done according to law." 

Contrary to. " He has acted contrary to orders." 

As to. "As to your case, nothing was said." 

From beyond. " They came from beyond Jordan." 

From out. "From oat thy slime the monsters of the deep are made." 

In stead of. " This in stead o/that." Better, in stead of, as " in place of" 

i( in lieu of" " in my stead", "but this in stead." Stead is a noun. 
Out of. " Drawn out of a well." " A piano out of tune." 

To the foregoing prepositions may be added the following, which are 
less common : Abaft, adown, afore, aloft, alongside, aloof, aneath, aslant, 
atween, atwixt, bating, despite, despite of, inside, maugre, minus, outside, 
pending, per, plus, sans, saving, than, thorough, touching, versus, via, withal, 
withinside ; aboard of, as for, along with, from among, from before, from be- 
twixt, from off, from under, off of, over against, round about, but for. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

553. A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, 
phrases, or propositions. 

Ex. — "The mossy fountains and the sylvan shades." — Pope. 
"John and James are happy, because they are good." 



CONJUNCTIONS. 183 

554. Conjunctions not only connect parts of a sentence, 
but they also show how the connected parts are related 
or regarded. 

" Dear, because worthless. " " Read and write " ; " Read or write." 

555. Two conjunctions are sometimes combined, and 
used as one ; and sometimes a common phrase is used as 
a conjunction. 

"And yet I would not get riches thus, even if I were a beggar." 

" John, as well as Arthur, must be punished, inasmuch as they have 

both been disobedient." 

Such phrases are sometimes called complex or compound conjunctions. 

Sometimes an adverb is added to a conjunction simply to strengthen or vary the con- 
necting sense, and the two words may then be called a conjunctive phrase, or simply a 
conjunction ; but such adverbs as even, too* and also, should probably rather be re- 
ferred to our Note VII, under the Rules of Syntax. 

556. A Corresponding Conjunction, or Correlative 
Connective, is one of a separated pair that connect the 
same parts. 

Ex. — " Neither flattery nor threats could prevail." 

Neither is a corresponding conjunction answering or relating to nor, and helping it to 
connect the words flattery and threats. The two connectives give greater completeness to 
the connection, by enfolding the terms ; while one connective would appear as a mere 
tie. It is sometimes probably best to say that the subordinate connective is an auxil- 
iary connective that helps the other to unite two words, phrases, or clauses, by giving 
emphasis or greater completeness to the connection. 

Sometimes the connectives, as so and as, or rather and than, stand next to each other ; 
but they still belong to different clauses or phrases. 

557# And, or, and nor, are the chief conjunctions ; and 
they are mostly used for connecting words or phrases. 

Ex. — " Bees and blossoms." " Bees or blossoms." " Neither bees 
nor blossoms/' 

558. But, if, and that, are the next most important 
conjunctions ; and they are mostly used for connecting 
clauses. 

Ex. — " She tries a thousand arts, but none succeed." — Young. 

In language, the simple succession of parts implies connection. 
Hence, — 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

559. For the sake of brevity, conjunctions are some- 
times omitted. 

" 'T was certain [-that] he could write, and cipher too." 

" Had I been at home, you should have staid ; " i. e., If I, etc. 

" The way was long, [and] the wind was cold." 

"When and, or, or nor, is used before the last term of a series, it probably shows simply 
that the end is reached ; and it is therefore hardly proper to consider it as being under- 
stood before each preceding term. 

569« A conjunction is sometimes used where it is not 
absolutely needed. 

1. At the beginning of a sentence, to make its intro- 
duction less abrupt. 

" And tell me, I charge you, ye clan of my spouse, 
Why fold ye your mantles, why cloud ye your brows ? " 

2. In the body of a sentence, when the speaker means 
to dwell on particulars, in order that the hearer may duly 
appreciate what he says. 

Ex. — " Italy teems with recollections of every kind ; for courage, 
and wisdom, and power, and arts, and science, and beauty, and 
music, and desolation, have all made it their dwelling-place." 

581. When a conjunction connects words or phrases, 
they are nearly always in the same construction. 

Ex. — "Mary, Jane, and Alice, | went into the garden, and 
brought some large, ripe, and juicy peaches." 

Here the connected nouns are nominatives to the same verbs , the connected verbs or 
predicates have the same subject ; and the connected adjectives qualify the same noun. 

582. Most conjunctions are emigrants from other parts 
of speech. 

Ex. — Both, either, that, adj. ; then, yet, as, adv. ; except, pro- 
vided, if (probably from give), verbs. 

LIST OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

Learn the List, and show what terms are connected by each conjunction. 
And ; copulative ; co-ordinate. 4< The winds and the waves are absent there." 
As ; causal; subordinate. "As you request it, I will £0." 
As ; comparative ; subordinate, sometimes co-ordinate. "You did as well as I." 
As, implying comparison, is generally rather a conjunctive adverb than a pure con- 
junction. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 185 

As well as ; copulative; co-ordinate. " He, as well as I, was deceived." 
Because ; causal ; subordinate. " Success is difficult, because many strive. " 
But; adoersatice ; co-ordinate. " I go, but I return." [politics." 

Except | restrictive; subordinate. " He is sane, tfrc<?p£ when he talks of 
Except; conditional; subordinate. "Except a man be born again," etc. 
For 5 causal; subordinate, sometimes co-ordinate. " Rise,ybr it is day." 
Furthermore ; copulative ; co-ordinate. It sometimes begins a paragraph. 
If; conditional; subordinate. "If the advice is good, take it." 
I est; cautionary or causal; subordinate. " Touch it not, lest ye die." 
N otwithstanding ; adversative and co-ordinate, or concessive and subordinate. 

Notwithstanding, when used in the sense of " still, however" is co-ordinate; 
when used in the sense of " even if" subordinate. 

Moreover ; copulative ; co-ordinate. It sometimes begins a paragraph. 
Nor; disjunctive ; co-ordinate. " He said nothing more, nor did I." 
Or $ disjunctive; co-ordinate. " We must educate, or we must perish." 
Provided ; conditional ; subordinate. " I will go, provided you go." 
Since ; causal; subordinate. " Since you have come, I will go." 
Still ; adversative ; co-ordinate. "He has often failed, still he strives." 
Than ; comparative ; subordinate. " Performance is better than promising." 
That ; final; subordinate. " He studies, that he may," etc. For what end? 
That ; demonstrative ; subordinate. That, in this sense, is a sort of pro* 
noun, with which the rest of the clause is put in apposition ; or it 
forms a kind of handle to the clause, by pointing out a group of words 
that must be referred as a whole to something else. ♦" That \ the war ■ 
is a calamity, is admitted." Ht It is admitted t h a t \ the war is a calamity" 
" We all know that \ the war is a calamity" 
Then ; illative ; co-ordinate. " The cotton is yours ? then defend it." 
Though, although, sometimes what though ; concessive, subordinate, 

" Though he owns but little, he owes nothing." 
Unless; conditional; subordinate. "Unless you. study, you will not learn." 
Unless ; adversative ; co-ordinate. " Remain, unless you must go." 
Whether; indeterminate; subordinate. " I will see whether he has come." 
Whether, and not if, should begin an indeterminate clause used as a noun. 
W. Nobody knows if the war will end soon. I will see if he has come. 
Whereas 5 causal ; subordinate. " Whereas it doth appear," etc. 
Whereas ; adversative ; co-ordinate. " Eeason errs ; whereas instinct," etc. 
Yet ; adversative ; coordinate. "All dread death, yet few are pious." 

The principal co-ordinate conjunctions are and, or, nor, and but* 

The principal subordinate conjunctions are that, than, as, if, and because. 

The left or first column of meanings will serve for pars- 
ing ; and the right or second, for analysis. Co-ordinate 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

conjunctions join the parts of compound phrases or sen- 
tences ; SUBORDINATE, of COMPLEX. 

There are some exceptions to what has been said in the List ; but these 
we refer to the judgment of the teacher, for it would be too tedious to 
mention them. 

Correlative Conjunctions or Connectives. 

Both — and, " It is both mine and yours." 

Ether — or. " It is either mine or yours." 

Neither — nor. " It is neither mine nor yours." 

Whether — or. " I know not whether it is mine or yours." 

Though, although — yet, nevertheless. " Though deep, yet clear." 

If— then. " If you have no confidence, then do not venture." 

As — as; equality. " Time is as precious as gold." 

As — so 5 equality. " As the one dies, so dies the other." 

So — as 5 consequence. u It is so plain as to require no explanation." 

So — that; consequence. u The road was so muddy that we returned." 

Not only — but also. " He is not only bold, but he is also cautious." 

Or — or; sometimes used by poets in stead of either — or. 

Nor — nor ; sometimes used by poets in stead of neither — nor. 

To these correlative connectives may be added such and as, same and as, such and 
that, not and nor, other and than, rather and than, else and than, the comparative 
degree followed by If an, the and the followed each by the comparative degree, and a 
few similar expressions. Correlative connectives are sometimes not conjunctions. The 
antecedent correlative is frequently an adverb or an adjective. Such a correlative con- 
nective should be first parsed as the part of speech to which it belongs ; and then its 
conjunctive character may be stated, with the Rule for conjunctions. 

To the conjunctions already given may be added as if, even if even 
though, except that, provided that, save, saving that, seeing that, inasmuch as, 
forasmuch as, so that, in order that, so as, on the contrary, on the other hand, 
the moment that, etc. Some of these may be more appropriately called 
conjunctive phrases. 

Again, also, however, now, nay, even, further, besides, therefore, wherefore, 
namely, nevertheless, otherwise, likewise, so, thus, else, accordingly, consequently, 
and a few other such words, though originally adverbs, may be considered 
conjunctions when they stand near the beginning of a clause or sentence, 
and serve to introduce it. Most such words have acquired their conjunc- 
tive sense by ellipsis. 

It is sometimes difficult to determine whether a given word should be con- 
sidered an adverb, a preposition, or a conjunction. The chief character- 
istic of adverbs is, to modify; of conjunctions, to connect; and of preposi- 
tions, to govern substantives in the objective case. It is generally not so 
much a matter of importance to know precisely to what class a given word 
should be referred, as to understand clearly the meaning and force of the 
word in the sentence. 



INTERJECTIONS. 187 

INTERJECTIONS. 

563. An Interjection is a word that expresses an 
emotion, and is not connected in construction with any 
other word. 

Ex. — " ' O, stay ! ' the maiden said, i and rest.' " — Longfellow. 

Omit 0, and the sentence will stilL make good sense without it. 

584 9 Words from almost every other part of speech, 
and sometimes entire phrases, when abruptly uttered to 
express emotion, may become interjections. 

Ex. — Strange! behold! what! why! indeed! mercy! 
" Why, there, there, there ! " 
" Fire and brimstone I what have you been doing ? " 

But when it is not the chief purpose of such a word to express emo- 
tion, and when the omitted words are obvious, the word should be 
parsed as usual ; as, u Patience, good lady ! comfort, gentle Constance ! " 
= Have patience, good lady ! receive comfort, gentle Constance. 

563. Words used in speaking to the inferior animals, 
and imitative words or syllables that are uttered with 
emotion, are generally interjections. 

Ex. — Haw ! gee ! whoh ! scat ! whist ! 'st, 'st ! 

" The words are fine ; but as to the sense — b-a-h I n 
" Up comes a man on a sudden, slap ! dash ! n 
u Be sure that you blow out the candle, — 
Rlfol de rol tol de rol lol" — Horace SmWi. 

566. A substantive after an interjection is independent, 
or else its case depends on some word understood. 

Ex. — « O thou ! " " Ah me ! " = Ah ! pity me ; or, Ah ! what has 
happened to me ! or, Ah ! wo is to me ! or, Ah ! it grieves me. 

" O, happy we ! " = O, happy are we ! Or else apply Rule II. 

LIST OF INTERJECTIONS. 

1. Of Earnestness in Address. — O ! 

2. Of Surprise, Wonder, or Horror. — Hah ! ha! what! h'm ! 
heigh! indeed! hey-day! la! whew! zounds! eh! ah! oh! hoity-toity! 

«7 



188 



.ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



3. Of Sorrow or Pity. — Oh ! alas ! ah ! alack ! welladay ! 

4. Of Joy, Exultation, or Approbation. — Aha ! ah ! oh ! hey ! 

eh ! eigh i huzzah ! hurrah ! good ! bravo ! 

5. Of Contempt or Aversion. — Pshaw ! pish ! tut ! tush ! poh ! 
lie! bah! humph! faugh! whew! off! begone! avaunt! s 

6. Of Attention or Calling* — Ho ! lo ! behold ! look ! see ! hark ! 
la ! heigh-ho ! soho ! hollo ! halloo ! hoy ! whoh ! 'st ! 

7. Of Silence. — Hush ! hist ! whist ! 'st ! aw ! mum ! 

8. Of Interrogating. — Eh ? hem, or h'm ? (The opposite of the 
preceding class.) 

9. Of Detection. — Aha ! oho ! ay-ay ! 

10. Of Laughter. — Ha, ha, ha ! he, he, he ! 

11. Of Saluting or Parting. — Welcome ! hail ! all-hail ! adieu ! 
good-by ! and perhaps good-day ! good-morning ! etc. 

Can you mention two interjections of grief? — two of joy ? etc. 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 



10. 
11. 
32. 
13. 

14. 

15. 

1Q. 
17. 

18. 
19. 

20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 

34. 

25. 
26. 

27. 



What is a Verb? • • . H361 
Give the Classification of Verbs. 
"What is a regular verb ? . . . 365 
What is an irregular verb ? . 366 
"Which are the principal parts of a 
verb? and why are they called 

such? 367 

What is a redundant verb ? . . 373 
What is a defective verb ? . . 374 
What is a finite verb ? 375 

What parts of the verb are not 

finite? 378 

What is a transitive v?rb ? .- . 380 
What is an intransitive verb? . 38 J 
What is a neuter verb ? . . .382 
When may a transitive verb become 
intransitive? .... 384 
When may an intransitive verb be- 
come transitive ? .... 385 
What is a principal verb ? . , 391 
What is an auxiliary verb? . .392 
What properties have verbs ? . 393 



What is Voice, in gramma* ? . 394 

How many voices are there, and 
what are they called? . . 395 
When is a verb in the active voice 7 396 
When is a verb in the passive voice ? 397 
To what verbs docs voice belong ? . 398 
What is said of such verbs as are 

come, is gone ? 399 

How is a verb in the active voice 

changed into the passive ? . . 402 

What is Mood? ... 405 

How many moods are there, and 

what are they called? . ■ . . 406 
What does a verb in the indicative 

mood express ? ... 407 



A verb in the subjunctive mood ? . 
A verb in the potential mood? . 
A verb in the imperative mood ? . 

What is Tense? 

How many tenses are there, and 
what are they called ? .- . 

What is said of the present indica- 
tive ? ..... 

Of the present subjunctive ? . 

Of the present potential ? . 

Of the present imperative ? 

Of the present-perfect indicative ? 

Of the present-perfect potential ? . 

Of the past indicative? 

Of the past subjunctive ? . 

Of the past potential ? 

Of the past-perfect indicative ? 

Of the past-perfect subjunctive and 
potential? .... 

Of the future tense ? 

Of the future-perfect tense ? 

What is said of the tenses of the 
subjunctive mood ? 

Of the tenses of the potential ? . 

Of when, till, as soon as, etc. ? 

What are the Forms of a Tense ? 

How many forms are there, and 
what are they called? 

What is said of the common 
form ? 

Of the emphatic form ? 

Of the j&ssive form ? 

Of the progressive form ? . 

Of the ancient form ? 

How is a proposition made inter- 
rogative ? .... 

How is it made negative? 



410 
417 

420 

424 

425 

426 
427 
428 
429 
430 
432 
433 
434 
435 



437 
438 

439 

440 
441 

442 

443 

444 

445 
446 

447 
448 
449 

450 
451 



QUESTIONS. 



189 



68. What are the Person and Number 

of a verb? .... 452 

59. What ending to the verb does thou 

geuerally require? . . . 455 

60. He, she, or it, in the present indic- 

ative ? . ■ . . . 456 

61. When a subject or antecedent con- 
4 sists of words that differ in person, 

how do you determine the person 

of the verb or pronoun ? . 458, 459 

62. What kinds of subjects or antece- 

dents are singular in construction ? 460 

63. What kinds of subjects or antece- 

dents are plural in construction? 461 

64. What terms do not affect the form 

of the verb or pronoun ? . . 462 

65. What is an impersonal verb ? . 465 

66. What do the Auxiliary Verbs ex- 

press ? 466 

67. Which are the auxiliary verbs ? 467 
08. In what instances is it proper to 

use shall and should ? 

69. In what instances is it proper to 

use will and would? 

70. In what other ways than that of ex- 

pressing grammatical properties, 
are auxiliary verbs useful ? . . 468 

71. When are be, do, and have princi- 

pal verbs? .... 469 

72. What is an Infinitive'? • .471 

73. How many infinitives are there, 

and what are they called ? . 472 

74. What is said of the present infini- 

tive? ...... 473 

75. How is it formed ? 474 

76. What is said of the perfect infin- 

itive? 475 

77. How is it formed ? 476 

78. When is to, the sign of the infin- 

itive, omitted ? . 481, 482 

79. What is a Participle ? • • 483 

80. How many participles are there, 

and what are they called ? . 484 

81. What is said of the present parti- 

ciple ? . . . . .485 

82. How is the simple present parti- 

ciple made ? 486 

83. What is said of it in regard to 

voice? 487 



84. 

85. 

86. 
87. 
88. 
89. 

90. 

91. 

92. 

93. 

94. 

95. 

96. 

97. 

98. 
99. 
100. 

101. 

102. 
103. 

104. 
105. 
106. 

107. 

108. 

109. 
110. 

111. 

112. 
113. 



What is said of the perfect parti- 
ciple ? 489 

How is the simple perfect parti- 
ciple made? .... 490 
When is it iu the active voice ? 492 
When is it in the passive voice? . 493 
What is a compound participle ? 495 
For what purpose is the auxiliary 

participle being used ? . . 496 

For what purpose is the auxiliary 

participle having used? . 497 

For what purpose is the auxiliary 

participle having been used ? . 498 
How many and what infinitives in 

both voices ? 
How many and what participles in 

both voices ? 
Mention the chief particulars in 
which participles and infinitives 
agree? .... P. 158 

Mention the chief particulars in 
which they differ ? 



What is Conjugation 1 

What is sy n ops is? . 



IT 515 
516 

520 
524 



What is an Adverb ? • 

What is a conjunctive adverb ? 

From what are most adverbs 
formed ? 581 

When should the adverb be used ? 
and when the adjective ? . 533 

How are adverbs compared ? . 537 

Into what classes are adverbs di- 
vided ? 

What is a Preposition ? 538 

What is an adjunct ? 540 

What may the antecedent term 

be? 541 

What may the subsequent term 

be? . . . .543 

Repeat the list of prepositions. 

What is a Conjunction 1 ? • 553 
What is a corresponding conjunc- 
tion? 556 

Repeat the list of conjunctions. 

What is an Interjection? . 563 
Mention some interjections. 



Write a sentence that has a proper noun. 

Write a sentence that has a common noun. 

Write a sentence that has a collective noun. 

Write a sentence that has a personal pronoun. 

Write a sentence that has a compound personal pronoun. 

Write a sentence in which the relative who is properly used. 

Write a sentence in which the relative which is properly used. 

Write six sentences to illustrate different constructions of the relative that. 

Write a sentence that has your rrame properly used in the possessive case. 

(The teacher should extend these exercises so far as to draw out all the im' 
portant points of the book.) 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RULES OF SYNTAX. 

567. Syntax comprises relation and position. 

568. The Relation of words is their reference to one 
another according to the sense. 

Kelation frequently implies government and agreement. 

Government is the power which one word has over another, in de- 
termining its case, person, number, or some other property. 

Agreement is the correspondence of one word with another, in case, 
person, number, or some other property. 

569. Position refers to the place which a word occu- 
pies in reference to other words of the sentence. 

570. A Rule, in grammar, is generally a brief state- 
ment that teaches the proper form or use of words. 

RULE I. — Nominatives. 
A Noun or Pronoun, used as the subject of a finite 
verb, must be in the nominative case. 

John studies, /study. They study. 

W. I have tasted no better apples than them are. 
Were you and him at the party ? 
Whom, would you suppose, stands head in our class ? 
He is taller than me, but I am as tall as her. 
RULE II. — Nominatives. 
A Noun or Pronoun, used independently or abso- 
lutely, must be in the nominative case. 
Mary, your lilies are in bloom. 
The rain having ceased, we departed. 

dC TheMn ™?n £»£mh£ a participle, that it does not re.ate to any other word; 
and U £Ter™ore said to be nsed absolutely, with the part.o.ple. 



I 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 191 

Nominative Independent. 

By direct Address s " Auspicious Hope ! in thy sweet garden grow 

Wreaths for each toil, a charm for every woe." 
By Exclamations " Scotland! there is mair-c in the sound." 
By Pleonasm or Specification : " He that hath, to him shall be given." 

Nominative Absolute. 

Before a Participles " Peace being established, commerce revived." 

" The steed [being] at hand, why longer tarry ? * 
kfter a Participles " Such is ihe folly of becoming a politician." 
After an Infinitive s " To be a good Christian was his highest ambition/* 
W. Him who had led them to battle being killed, they retreated. 
Whose gray top shall tremble,, Him descending. 
There is no doubt of its being him. 

EULE III. — Possessives. 

A Noun or Pronoun that limits the meaning of an- 
other by denoting possession, must be in the possessive 
casew 

John's horse is in our pasture. 

Explanation. — Since John owns the horse, there is plainly a relation between John 
and horse -, and it is also evident that not any horse is meant, but only the one which be- 
longs to John. A similar remark is applicable to our and pasture. 

W. Do you use Webster or Worcester's Dictionary ? 

RULE IV. — Objectives. 
A Noun or Pronoun, used as the object of a transitive 
verb, must be in the objective case. 

I shot a deer. We caught them. 

Explanation. — Since I shot the deer, there is a relation between my shooting and the 
deer, or between the words shot and deer. In the second example, there is as plainly a 
relation between caught and them; and notice also that the objective form, them, and 
not the nominative form, they, will make good sense after caught. Hence the Rule. 

The foregoing Rule is also applicable to infinitives and participles. 

W. She that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. 
Who do you mean ? Who did you see ? 
Who should I meet the other day but my old friend I 



192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RULE V. — Objectives. 
A Noun or Pronoun, used as the object of a preposi- 
tion, must be in the objective case. 

The money was sent by me to him. 

^ Explanation. — Sent by some one, sent to some one ; hence there is evidently a rela- 
tion between by and me, and between to and him. Observe also that the objective forme, 
me and him, and not the nominative forms, / and he, will make good sense after the 
prepositions. Hence the Rule. 

W. Between you and I there is little difference of opinion. 
I do not know who she went with. 
I gave it to somebody ; I have forgotten who. 

RULE VI. — Objectives. 
A Noun or Pronoun that limits the meaning of a 
verb, an adjective, or an adverb, is sometimes used in the 
objective case without a preposition expressed. 

Sometimes a substantive is thus used in the objective case, to limit a noun. 

This Rule is designed to reach all those objective nouns and pro- 
nouns, which, by the idiom of our language, are commonly used to limit 
other words adverbially, or in the sense of adjuncts, without haying a 
governing word expressed. It is therefore applicable to some nouns 
that show the time, extent, direction, manner, value, or quantity ; to 
the indirect objects after such verbs as give, lend, offer, present, etc. ; 
and to the objects which follow the words like, near, worth, opposite, 
etc. By supplying a preposition, the Rule can be dispensed with. 
— See § 284 and p. 222. 

We sailed north, a hundred miles, the first day. 
We sailed toward the north, over a hundred miles of space, during the first day. 
It is [by] a ton heavier. It happened five times. Ice afoot thick. 
He wears his coat cloak fashion. It is worth nothing. 
Give [to] me the reins. Oranges grow, like apples, on small trees. 
W. My landlady had a daughter q/'nine years old. — Swift. 
Just beyond the church is a lot of sixty feet square. 

BTJLE VII. --Same Case. 
A Noun or Pronoun used for explanation or em 
phasis, by being predicated of another, or put in apposi- 
tion with another, must be in the same case. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 193 

Jones is a lawyer. The lawyer is Jones. 
It is Jones the lawyer. He himself is Jones the lawyer. 
Explanation — Since Jones is a lawyer, there must be a relation between the words 
Jones and lawyer* and since each word can be used as the nominative to is, both must 
be in the same case. 

For an explanation of predication and apposition, see pp. 99 and 100. 

Words in apposition are sometimes connected by as, or, and, or than. 

W. I knew it was him. I knew it to be he. Is it me ? 

Remark. — A substantive put in apposition with a clause, phrase, or 
word that has not case, must be in the nominative case; as, "He re- 
vived to rely on himself, — a resolution which he kept." 

EULE VIII. — Two Cases. 
The pronoun "what, when it comprises a simple relative 
and its antecedent, has a double construction in regard to 
case. 

I remember what was said. 

What is here used as the object of remember, and also as the subject of was said. 
Rule VIII is given merely as a convenience ; for this Rule can be dispensed with, by 
applying two other Rules. 

W. Give that what you can spare, to the poor. 

Note I. — A Compound Relative, or a similar expression, 

may furnish two cases, when its form allows them. 

Whoever sins, must suffer. Take whichever horse you like. 
Whoever is used as the nominative to sins, and also as the nominative to must suffer. 
I will employ whomsoever you recommend. 
What money he brought with him, was soon spent. 
Observation 1. — When the form of the relative does not 
allow the two cases required, it must take the form needed for 
its own clause, and an antecedent must be supplied in parsing. 

EULE IX. — Pronouns. 
A Pronoun must agree with its antecedent, in gender, 
person, and number. 

Mary has lost her bonnet. 

Explanation. — Her must be of the same gender, person, and number as Mary; for if 
it were different in any of these respects, it is evident that it could not denote Mary* 

For an explanation of antecedents, see pp. 73 and 143. 

W. Each of our party carried a knapsack with them. 

Not one of the boys should come without their books. 

You and your playmates must learn their lessons. 

The earth is my mother ; and I will recline upon its bosom. 



194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

KUIiE X. — Articles, Adjectives, and Participles. 

An Article, an Adjective, or a Participle, belongs 
to the noun or pronoun to which it relates. 

The girl brought a large rose just refreshed by a shower. 

Explanation. — The what ? a what ? What kind of rose ? Observe that both large 
and refreshed describe the rose. 

Note II. — An Adjective that implies number, must agree in 
this respect with the substantive to which it relates. 

For the sake of gTeater definiteness, this Note, which is applicable to the adjectives 
this, these, that, those, two, three, four, etc., may be used in parsing j though the Rule 
can also be used in place of it. 

W» You have been playing this two hours. 
How do you like those kind of apples 1 
The room is eighteen foot long, and sixteen foot wide. 

Note III. — An Adjective or a Participle is sometimes used 
absolutely, after a participle or an infinitive. 

The way to be happy is to be good. The dread of being poor. 
To appear discouraged is the surest way to invite an attack. 

Observe that happy, good, poor, and discouraged, are not used with the name3 of the 
persons described. It does not seem to us that it would be improper to parse the entire 
phrase simply as a noun, according to Note IV j thus dispensing with this Note altogether. 

Obs. 2. — When the article stands only before the first of 
two or more connected nouns, it belongs to them jointly if they 
denote but one person or thing, or more viewed as one ; if not, 
it belongs to the first noun, and is understood before each of 
the others. 

I saw Webster, the great statesman and orator. 

A man and horse passed by the house and lot. 

The man, [the] woman, and [the] child, were drowned. 

Qbs. 3. — When two or more adjectives come between an 
article and a plural noun, they sometimes qualify each only a 
part of what the noun denotes. 

*< The New and Old Testaments " = The New Testament and the Old 
Testament; not, The New Testaments and the Old Testaments. 



I 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 195 

RULE XL- Finite Verbs, 
A Finite Verb must agree with its subject, in person 
and number. 

John studies. I study. I am. He is. They are. 

Explanation — Since John does the studying, there is obviously a relation between 
John and studies. Observe also that we can not say, when speaking properly, "John 
study," 'I is," "He am"; but we must use with each subject that form of the verb 
which will agree with it in person and number according to the Conjugation, pp. 162-169. 

For an explanation of the different kinds of subjects, see p. 143. 

W. I always learns my lessons before I goes to school. 

My outlays is greater than rny income. 

Five is too many to ride in the canoe at once. 

There is six cords of wood in the pile. 

That which you yourself has asked. 

What signifies fair words without good deeds? 

He dare not say it to my face. 

I called, but you was not at home. 

A finite verb is sometimes used without a subject. 

" Meseems" " Methi?iks." " God said, Let us make man in our image. * 

There are but few instances in which verbs are used so 5 and probably the simplest way 
to parse these few is, to supply it, thou, or ye, even when the sense must be strained a 
little. The two or three anomalous expressions of this kind, as methinks, methought, 
can be easily disposed of by the figure enallaqc. 

RULE XII. — Infinitives. 
An Infinitive depends on the word which it limits, or 
which leads to its use. 

We were anxious to return that night. 

The Passions oft, to hear her shell, 

Thronged around her magic cell. 

The definitions are so arranged as to be easily learned. 

To return limits anxious, by showing as to what we were anxious 5 and it therefore 
depends on anxious, according to Rule XII. To hear limits thronged, by showing for 
what purpose •, and it therefore depends on thronged, according to Rule XII. To be 
learned depends on as, according to the last clause of Rule XII. (See pp. 153 and 216.) 
An infinitive depends on the word with which it makes syntax. 

Note IV. — An Infinitive, a Participle, a Phrase, or a Clause, 
may be used as a noun in any case except the possessive* 

To be without wants is, the prerogative of God only. 
His being blood ] y was the en use of suspicion. 
It is best not to have any thing to do with him. 



196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

He knows when to purchase. He knows what to say. 
. He knows when it is best not to purchase. 
"Lazy wire I " exclaimed the dial-plate. "Very good," replied the pen- 
dulum. (Next parse the separate words as usual.) 

This Note can be dispensed with by applying the Rule of Syntax which is applicable to 
tin case in which the word, phrase, or clause is used. When an infinitive or a participle 
assumes case, it may be treated as a noun would be in the same situation. But some- 
times the infinitive or participle is so intimately blended with other words, that it seems 
absolutely necessary to take the whole phrase as one thing •, and in such cases the Note 
is preferable to any of the Rules. 

Note V. — A Participle or an Infinitive is sometimes used 

independently, in the sense of a clause. 

Generally speaking, young men are best for business. 

We, generally speaking, would say, that young men are best for business. 

But to proceed : it has been frequently remarked, that, etc. 

But it is time f ^ pr seed and therefore let us renew the subject thus* it has been, etc 

Supplied words ofl "dry the meaning, or make the sentence clumsy. Hence the Note. 

RULE XIII.- Adverbs. 

An Adverb modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjec- 
tive, or another adverb. 

" The horse runs rapidly." Runs how ? 
" The horse runs vetjf rapidly." How rapidly ? 
" The horse is very strong." How strong ? 
W. He spoke clear and corm A remarkable fine country. 
She dresses suitable to hei means and station. 

Note VI. — A Conjunctive Adverb joins a modifying clause 
or phrase to some other word. 

See p. 173, for examples; and pp. 210-226, for remarks. 

Note VII. — Sometimes an Adverb modifies a phrase or 
a clause ; and some adverbs of addition, exclusion, empbasis, or 
quantity, may relate to any part of a sentence. 

" Dryden wrote merely \ for the peopled — Johnson. 

"Just | as I approached the jungle, the panther made a spring." 

" Not even \ a philosopher can endure the toothache patiently." 

Even relates to the subject of the sentence; and not relates to the subject as modified 
by even. Some of these adverbs are a species of conjunctive adverbs. — See p. 186. 

Note VIII. — An Adverb is sometimes used independently. 
"Yes, my lord." " No; I was not there." — See p. 174. 



RULES 0? SYNTAX. 197 

RULE XIV.— Prepositions. 
A Preposition shows the relation of an object to some 
other word on which the adjunct depends. 
A man of wisdom spoke. The man spoke of wisdom. 

RULE XV,- Conjunctions^ 

A Conjunction connects words, phrases, clauses, or 

sentences. 

Words or phrases, connected by conjunctions, are generally in the 
same construction. 

"Weeds and briers grow in the field, because it is not cultivated," 

Note IX. — As or than sometimes j6ins a word or phrase 
to a clause, in stead of connecting two clauses. 

Words can sometimes be supplied after the infinitive, so as to make two clauses , as, 
14 Be so kind as to write, to me " [would be kind]. But in most instances words can not 
be thus supplied without varying or destroying the sense. 

RULE XVI. — Interjections. 

An Interjection has no grammatical connection with 
other words. — See § 563 and 566. 

Can you repeat Rule 1st? — 2d? — 3d? — 4th? — 5th? — 6th? —> 
7th ? — 8th ? — 9th ? — 10th ? — llth ? — 12th ? — lBth ? — Uth ? — 
Uth? — Uth? — Note 1st?— 2d? — 3d? — 4th? — 6th f — 6tht — 
7th? — 8th?— 9th? 

POSITION. 

Articles generally precede their substantives. 
Adjectives precede or follow their substantives, 
Participles precede or follow their substantives. 
Pronouns generally follow their antecedents. 
Infinitives generally follow the words on which they depend. 
Finite verbs generally follow their subjects. 
Adverbs generally follow their verbs or the auxiliaries, and 
precede the adjectives or adverbs modified.. 

Possessive words precede the names of the things owned. 
Objective words generally follow their governing words* 
Explanatory words generally follow the words explained. 

In regard to the arrangement of words logically and rhetorically considered, see p. 260. 



198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

PARSING. 
General Formula. — The part of speech, and why ; the 
kind, and why ; the properties, and why ; the relation to other 
words, and according' to what Rule. 

ARTICLES. 

Formula. - An article, and why; fff^ J and why ; to 
what it belongs,*and according to what Rule. 

The river. 

Analysis. — The river is a phrase. The principal word is river, modified 
by the article the. (All the following exercises may be first analyzed, and 
then parsed, if the teacher deems it best to do so.) 

Parsing. — The is an article, it is placed before a noun to limit its 
meaning ; definite, it shows that some particular river is meant ; and it be- 
longs to river, according to Rule X : An article belongs to the noun to which 
it relates. 

It is not necessary, in parsing, to repeat more of a Rule than the example requires. 

Abridged. — The is the definite article ; and it belongs to river, etc. 
River is a noun, it is a name ; common, it is a name that can be applied 
to all objects of the same kind ; neuter gender, it denotes neither a male 
nor a female; third person, it represents an object as spoken of; singular 
number, it means but one. 

In like manner parse the following phrases : — 
The man. The men. A rose. An arrow. 

The horse. The horses. A melon. An island. 

The child. The children. A university. An uncle. 

♦ A man's hat. 

Analysis. — A man's hat is a phrase. The principal word is hat, which is 
modified by man's, showing what hat 3 and man's is modified by a, showing 
that no particular man is meant. 

Parsing. — A is an article, it is placed before a noun to limit its mean- 
ing; indefinite, it shows that no particular man is meant; and it belongs 
to man's, according ro Rule X. (Repeat it.) 
\ Abridged. — A is the indefinite article ; and it belongs to man's, etc. 

Man's is a noun, it is a name ; common, it is a name common to all per- 
sons of the same kind ; masculine gender, it denotes a male ; third person, it 
d *notes the man as spoken of; singular number, it means but one; and in 
the possessive case, it limits the meaning of hat, according to Rule III. 






PARSING. 199 

Hat is parsed like river. 

Abridged. — Man's is a common noun, of the masculine gender, third 
pei>on, singular number; and in the possessive case, governed by hat. 

A neighbor's farm. The boy's book. 

An Indian's hatchet. The boys' books. 

The sun's splendor. Women's fancies. 

ADJECTIVES. 

Formula. — An adjective, and why ; ^p^™' \ and why ? 

whether compared or not, and how ; the degree , and why ; to what it 
belongs, and according to what Rule. 

Descriptive Adjectives* 

A beautiful morning, with a refreshing breeze. 

Analysis. — A beautiful morning, with d refreshing breeze, is a phrase. 
(Give definition.) The principal word is morning, which is modified by the 
article a, the adjective beautiful, and the adjunct with a refreshing breeze. 
Bj-eeze is modified by the article a, the adjective refreshing, and joined to 
morning by the preposition with* 

Beautiful is an adjective, — a word used to qualify or limit the meaning 
of a noun ; descriptive, it describes or qualifies the morning ; compared — 
pos. beautiful, com p. more beautiful, superl. most beautiful; in the positive 
degree, it expresses simply the quality ; and it belongs to morning, accord- 
ing to Rule X. 

Abridged. — Beautiful is a descriptive adjective, (compare it,) in the 
positive degree, and belongs to morning* 

^Refreshing is a participial adjective, from the verb refresh. As a parti* 
ciple, it is present, and in the active voice. As an adjective, it is placed 
"before breeze to describe it ; and belongs to it, 'according to Rule X. 

Abridged. — Refreshing is a participial adjective, from the verb refresh; 
and it belongs to breeze, according to Rule X. 

A ripe melon. An upper room. The black-winged redbird. 
The fairest lady. Purling streams. The red-winged blackbird. 
A gold cup. The best gift. A good boy's mother. 

Definitive Adjectives. 

Formula. — An adjective, and why ; the kind, and why ; to what 
it belongs, and according to what Rule. 

All men. Five dollars. 

All is an adjective^ it is used to limit the meaning of a noun ; defini* 



200 ENGLISH GRAiMMAR, 

tive, it specifies how many men are meant ; and it belongs to men, accord- 
ing to Rule X. 

Abridged. — All is a pronominal definitive adjective ; and belongs to 
men, according to Rule X. 

Five is an adjective, a word, etc. * * * numeral, and of the cardinal 
kind, because it expresses number and tells how many ; and it belongs to 
dollars, according to Rule X. 
Or say, — " and it agrees with men, in the plural number, according to Note I." 
Abridged. — Five is a numeral definitive adjective, of the cardinal 
kind ; and belongs to dollars, according to Rule X. 

Yonder house. That barn. Every fourth man. 

This tree. Each pupil. Those two benches. 

These trees. Such a person. The lawyer's own case. 

NOUNS. 

Formula. — A noun, and why ; P ™^ n ^ j and why ; collective, 

and why; gender, and why; person, and why; number, and why; 
declension ; case, and Rule. 

Snow is falling. 

Analysts. — Snow is falling, is a simple declarative sentence. Snow is the 
subject, and is falling is the predicate. 

Snow is a noun, it is a name ; common, it is a name common to all sub- 
stance of the same kind; neuter gender, etc. (see river, p. 198) ; and in the 
nominative case — it is the subject of the verb is falling — according to 
Rule I. 

Abridged. — Snow is a common noun, of the neuter gender, third per- 
son, singular number ; and in the nominative case to is falling. Rule I. 

Parsing is usually abridged, by simply omitting the reasons. 

Parse the articles, the adjectives, and the nouns ; — 

Galile'o invented the telescope. 

Henry Johnson's cattle have eaten our grass. 

James the coachman is sick. George is a gentleman. 

Alice, bring your books, slate, and paper. 

My mother being sick, I remained at home. 



PARSING. 201 



PRONOUNS. 



personal 



- . I 

jatwe, j 



Formula,. -A pronoun, and vhy„ Zte'Zgative, \ 

adjective, J 

gender, and why ; person, and why ; number, and why ; declension ; 
case, and Rule. 

Personal Pronouns. 

I myself saw John and his brother. 

Analysts. — This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is / my- 
self; I is the subject-nominative, which is modified by the emphatic apposi- 
tive myself. Saw John and his brother, is the predicate; saw is the predicate- 
verb, which is limited by the objects John and brother, which are connected 
by and, and the latter of which is limited by his. , 

I is a pronoun, it is a word used in stead of a noun ; personal, it is one oi 
those pronouns which distinguish the grammatical , persons ; of the common 
gender, it may denote either a male or a female ; first person, it denotes the 
speaker; singular number, it means but one; nom. I ; and in the nominee 
tive case — it is the subject of the verb saw — according to Rule I. 

Abridged. — I is a personal pronoun of the common gender, first per- 
son, singular number; and in the nom. case to the verb saw. Rule I. 

Myself is a pronoun, —a word used in stead of a noun ; compound, it ia. 
compounded of my and self; personal, etc. * * * and in the nominative case, 
to agree with /, according to Rule VII. 

Abridged. — Myself is a compound personal pronoun, etc. 

His is a pronoun, — a word used in stead of a noun ; personal, it is one 
of those pronouns which distinguish the grammatical persons ; of the mas- 
culine gender, third person, and singular number, to agree with John, 
according to Rule IX; (repeat it;) nom. he, poss. his; and in the posses 
sive case — it limits the meaning of brother — according to Rule III. 

Abridged. — His is a personal pronoun, of the masculine gender, be 
pers., s. n., to agree with John, according to Rule IX ; (repeat it;) and ik 
the possessive case, governed by brother, according to Rule III. 

Parse the articles, the adjectives, the nouns, and the pronouns : — 
We caught him. He came with me. 

Albert hurt himself. John, you are wanted. 

Art thou the man ? Thou 2 majestic Ocean 7 - 

Martha and Mary have recited their lessons. 
A dutiful son is the delight 7 of his parents. 
Your horse trots well, but mine paces. 

Say, Mine is used for my and horse. (Now parse each word.) 
9* 



202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Relative Pronouns. 

Read thy doom in the flowers, which fade and die. 

Which is a pronoun, — a word used in stead of a noun ; relative, it stands 
in close relation to an antecedent, and joins to it a descriptive clause ; of 
the neuter gender, third person, and plural number, to agree with flowers, 
according to Rule IX; (repeat it;) and in the nominative case — it is the 
subject of the verbs fade and die — according to Rule I. 

Abridged. — Which is a relative pronoun, of the neuter gender, third 
person, and singular number, to agree with flowers, according to Rule IX; 
and in the nominative case to the verbs fade and die. Rule I. 

James reads what pleases him. 

What is a pronoun, — a word used in stead of a noun ; relative, it makes 
its clause dependent on another ; of the neuter gender, it denotes neither a 
male nor a female ; third person, it represents an object as spoken of; sin- 
gular number, it means bijf one ; and it is here used as the object of reads 
and the subject of pleases, — because it takes the place of that which or thing 
which, — according to Rule VIII. 

Abridged. — What is a relative pronoun, of the neuter gender, third 
person, singular number, etc. 

She who studies her glass, neglects her heart. 
It was I' that -went. . I am His who created me. 
He was such a talker as could delight us all. 
Take whatever you like. What is dear, few buy. 
Whoever gives to the poor, lends to the Lord. 

Interrogative Pronouns. 

Whom did you see? 

Whom is a pronoun, — a word used in stead of a noun ; interrogative, it is 
used to ask a question ; of the common gender, it may denote either a male 
or a female; third person, it represents an object as spoken of; singular 
number, it means but one ; and in the objective case — it is the object of the 
verb did see — according to Rule IV. 

Abridged. — Whom, is an interrogative pronoun, of the com. gen., 3d 
pers., s. n. ; and in the obj. case, governed by did see, etc. 

I do not know what he is doing. 

What he is doing, is a clause used in the sense of a noun ; of the 
neuter gender, third person, singular number ; and in the objective case — 
it is the object of do know — according to Rule IV. 



PARSING. 203 

What is a pronoun, — a word used in stead of a noun ; responsive, it is used 
as if in answer to a question ; of the neuter gender, it denotes neither a male 
nor a female; third person, it represents an object as spoken of; singular 
number, it means but one ; and in the objective cast — it is the object of the 
verb is doing — according to Rule IV. 

Abridged. — What is a responsive relative pronoun, of the n. g., 3d p., 
s. n. ; and in the obj. case, governed by is doing, according to Rule IV. 

Who was Blennerhasset ? Who is my neighbor ? 
Which is it ? Who cau tell what democracy is ? 

Adjective Pronouns. 

The old bird feeds her young ones. 

Ones is an adjective pronoun, it is a common specifying adjective used 
as a pronoun ; it is here used in place of birds, and is therefore of the com- 
mon gender, third person, and plural number; and in the objective case — 
being the object of the verb feeds — according to Rule IV. 

Abridged. — Ones is an indefinite adjective pronoun, of the c. g., 3d 
p., and pi. n.; and in the objective case — governed by the verb feeds — 
according to Rule IV. 

Others may be wiser, but none are more amiable. 
Some were for this, and some for that. 

VERBS. 

Finite Verbs. 

Formula. — A verb, and why; principal parts ; \^^ r X and 

i transitive, with voice, ) i i, ,i ? j i ^i 

wh y; intransitive or neuter, [ and wh ^ the mood > and wh ^ the 
tense, and why, — with form, and why ; conjugation ; the person 
and number, to agree with its subject , according to Rule XI. 

Mention Form only when it is progressive, or emphatic, or passive without 
being passive in sense. 

He is ploughing the field which was bought last year. 

Is ploughing is a verb, it expresses the act of a subject ; principal partd 
— pres. plough, past, ploughed, pres. part, ploughing, perf. part, ploughed; 
/•'pilar, it takes the ending ed; transitive, it has an object (field), — and in 
the active voice, because it represents its subject as acting; indicative mood. 



204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

it expresses an actual occurrence or fact ; present tense, it denotes a present 
act, — and in the progressive form, it represents it as continuing ; (singular 
number — First person, I am ploughing ; 2d p., You are ploughing; 3d p., 
He is ploughing ; ) and in the third person, singular number, to agree with its 
subject father, according to Rule XI. 

Abridged. — Is ploughing is a regular transitive verb, from the verb 
plough; (principal parts, — pres. plough, past ploughed, perf. part, ploughed ;) 
in the indicative mood, present tense, progressive form ; and t in the 3d p; 
and s. n., to agree with its subject/aZ/ier, according to Rule XL 

Was bought is a verb, it affirms something of a subject ; principal parts, 
pres. bug, past bought, pres. part, buying, perf. pfcrt. bought ; irregular, it does 
not assume the ending ed; transitive — but in the passive voice, because it af- 
firms the act of the object acted upon ; indicative mood, it asserts something 
as an actual occurrence or fact ; past tense, it refers the act simply to past 
time; third person and singular number, to agree with its subject which, ac- 
cording to Rule XI. 

Abridged. — Was bought is an irr. pass, verb, from the verb buy, etc* 

Parse the articles, adjectives, nouns, pronouns, and verbs : — 

Regular and Irregular, Transitive and Intransitive. 

The sun warms the earth. They struck me. 

Birds fly. Rivers flow. It was I. 

The rose is beautiful. Fierce was the conflict. 

Voices. 
She broke the pitcher. The pitcher was broken. 
They named her Mary. She was named Mary. 

Moods. 
Robert sold his horse. Can you spell phthisic? 
Were he rich, he would be lazy. Be sincere. 
Tenses. 
The distant hills look blue. The robber was caught. 
The soldiers will be attacked. Had I known it. 
' The day will have passed. Do not venture yourself. 
The apples might have been eaten. Tall pines are rustling, 
She may have been handsome. She has been teaching. 
I do object. Thou hast a heart of adamant. 






PARSING. 205 

Persons and Numbers. 

Bees collect honey. Reckless youth makes rueful age. 
Time and tide wait for no man. You and I are invited. 
Monday or Tuesday was the day on which it happened. 
His family is large. The multitude pursue pleasure. 
Every house has a garden. Who are they ? 

Wait is of the 3d p., pi. n., to agree with time and tide— a, plural subject — accordin 
to Rule XI. — See pp. 144, 145, 146. 

INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 
Formula. - £££«* J andwhy; *jg } and why; 

transitive, with voice, 7 , , ( on what it depends, Rule XII. 
intransitive or neuter, ) w y ' ( to what it belongs, Rule X. 

The sun having set, we were obliged to return home. 

Having set is a participle, — - a form of the verb that expresses the act 
or state without predicating it, and generally resembles an adjective; com 
pound, it consists of having, combined with another participle; perfect, it ex- 
presses the act or state as completed at the time referred to ; intransitive, it 
does not have an object; and it belongs to sun, according to Rule X. 

The forms of the participle, in each voice, may also be mentioned in parsing. 

Abridged. — Having set is a compound perfect participle, from the 
irregular, intransitive verb set, set, setting, set ; and it belongs to sun, accord- 
ing to Rule X. 

To return is an infinitive, — a form of the verb that generally begins 
with to, and that expresses the act or state without predicating it; present, 
it denotes simply the act; intransitive, it does not have an object; and it 
depends on was obliged, according to Rule XII. 

Abridged. — To return is a present infinitive, from the regular, intransi- 
tive verb return, returned, returning, returned ; and it depends on was obliged, 
according to Rule XII. 

The forms of the infinitive, in each voice, may also be mentioned in parsing. 

Not to be sometimes deceived is impossible. 

To be deceived is an infinitive used as a noun. As an infinitive, it is 
present, transitive, in the passive voice, and modified adverbially. As a 
noun, it is of the neuter gender, third person, singular number ; and with 
the rest of the phrase of which it is the chief word, it is used as the subject 
of the verb is, according to Note IV. 



206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

I insist on writing the letter. 
Writing is a participial noun, from the irregular verb write, wrote, writing, 
written. As a participle, it is present, transitive, and in the active voice. As 
a nowK it is of the neuter gender, third person, singular number ; and in the 
objective case, governed by the preposition on, according to Rule V. 

Participles. 

The Indians fled, leaving their mules tied to the bushes. 
The machinery, being oiled, runs well. 
Time and thinking tame the strongest grief. 
Of making many books, there is no end. 

Infinitives. 
We had a great curiosity to see the battle-field. 
I ordered him to be brought. We are glad to see you. 
He ought to have written. Let no one pass. 
She is wiser than to believe his flattery. 
Not to love is unnatural. I forgot to mention it. 
It is reasonable to suppose 7 that he will try to escape. 

ADVERBS. 

Formula. — An adverb, and why; of what kind; whether com- 
pared, and how ; what it modifies ; Rule or Note. 

Conjunctive Adverb. — As an adverb, it modifies the verb , in its 

own clause, by expressing , (Rule XIII); as a conjunctive adverb, it re- 
fers its clause to , (Note VI). 

The trees are waving beautifully. 

Beautifully is an adverb, \t modifies the meaning of a verb (are wav- 
ing) ; it is an adverb of manner ; and it modifies the verb are waving, ac- 
cording to Rule XIII. 

Abridged. — Beautifully is an adverb of manner, can be compared, and 
modifies the verb are waving, according to Rule XIII. 

Since but few adverbs can be compared, it is not necessary, in parsing ad- 
verbs, to compare them, except when the adverb happens to be in the com- 
parative or superlative degree. 

1. Adverbs Modifying Verbs. 
The horse galloped gracefully. Our roses must soon fade. 
Then blue and lofty mountains successively appeared. 
Mary sews and knits well. Here will I stand. 



PARSING. 207 

2. Adverbs Modifying Adjectives. 
Her child was very young. He is perfectly honest. 
The music rose softly sweet. My hat is almost new. 
John is most studious. The wound was intensely painful. 

3. Adverbs Modifying Adverbs. 

The horse ran very fast. Thomas is not very industrious. 
He stutters nearly always. The field is not entirely planted. 
You did as well as I. She is now writing more carefully, 
^fhese scenes, once so delightful, no longer please him. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

Formula. — A preposition, and why ; between what it sliow3 
the relation ; Rule. 

The water flows over the dam. 

Over is a preposition, — a word used to show the relation between a fol- 
lowing noun or pronoun and some other word ; it here shows the relation 
of dam to flows, or between flows and dam, according to Rule XIV. 

Abridged. — Over is a preposition, showing the relation, etc. 
I found a dollar in the road. 
In spring the leaves come forth. 
We should not live beyond our means. 
From virtue to vice the progress is gradual. 
The river is washing the soil from under the tree. 
He struggled, like a hero, against the evils of fortune. 
We went from New York to Washington City, by railroad, 
in eight hours. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 
Formula. — A conjunction, and why ; its peculiar nature ; what 
it connects. Rule. 

The meadow produces grass and flowers. 

And is a conjunction, — a word used to connect words, phrases, or propo- 
sitions ; copulative, it implies addition; co-ordinate, it is used to connect parts 
of equal rank ; and it here joins flowers to grass, according to Rule XV • 
A conjunction connects words or phrases in the same construction, 

Abridged. — And is a copulative co-ordinate conjunction ; connecting 
grass and flowers, according to Rule XV. 



208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

You must either buy mine or sell yours. 

Either is a conjunction, a word, etc. * * * it corresponds to or, and 
assists it in connecting two phrases according to Rule XV. 

Or is a conjunction, etc. * * * disjunctive, it disjoins the words in sense, 
notwithstanding it joins them in form ; co-ordinate, it unites parts of equal 
rank ; it here corresponds to either, and connects two phrases according to 
Rule XV. 

Words Connected. 

Learning refines and elevates the mind. 
We should cultivate our hearts and minds. 
She is amiable, intelligent, and industrious. 
Neither flatter nor despise the rich or great. 

Phrases Connected. 

Through floods and through forests he bounded away. 
Death saw the floweret to the desert given, 
Plucked it from earth, and planted it in heaven. 

Clauses or Sentences Connected. 

Eagles generally go alone, but little birds go in flocks. 

Italian music ? s sweet because His dear. 

If it rain to-morrow, we shall have to remain at home. 

Though he is poor, yet he is honest. 

He was always courteous to wise and gifted men ; for ho 

knew that talents are more glorious than birth or 

riches [are]. 

INTERJECTIONS. 
Formula. — An interjection, and why ; of what kind ; Rule. 

Alas ! no hope for me remains. 

Alas is an interjection of grief; and it is used independently. Rule XVI. 

Ah ! few shall part where many meet. 

0, young Lochinvar is come out of the West! 

Desdemona! Desdemona! dead? Dead' Oh! oh! obf 






OBSERVATIONS. 209 



OBSERVATIONS. 

Parts Of Speech. — Some grammarians include the articles with 
the adjectives, and thus make but eight parts of speech ; others set off the 
participles as a distinct class, and # thus make ten parts of speech. The 
classification of words adopted in this book seems to us not only the best, 
but is also that which most generally prevails. 

Inflections. — Inflections may be divided into three classes ; de- 
clension, comparison, and conjugation. Nouns and pronouns are said to be 
d dined; adjectives and adverbs, compared ; and verbs, conjugated. Inflec- 
tions abound most about the core, or most ancient part, of a language. 
Hence our irregular verbs, especially the verb be, our pronouns, and some 
of our most common adjectives and nouns, are the most irregular words in 
our language. In the course of time, most inflections are dropped, or they 
are superseded by certain little words — such as prepositions, conjunctions, 
and auxiliary verbs — which are simpler and more obvious signs, and 
therefore better suited to express the relations of words. 

Inflections, particularly ancient ones, consist sometimes of a vowel 
change in the word; as, man, men; goose, geese; cling, clung: sometimes 
of a different ending; as, ox, oxen; fox, foxes; great, greater ; give, given : 
sometimes of a syllable or word prefixed; as, go, ago(ne) ; beautiful, more 
beautiful ; write, may write, to write: and sometimes of two or more of these 
combined ; as, weave, woven ,- break, having been broken. 

AIDS TO PARSING AND ANALYSIS. 
Designed only for Reference. 

The following selections comprise the most important idioms. 

Many words can be used as different parts of speech. 

It is simply the manner in which a word is used, that determines tho 

part of speech. 

A. " A man's duties " ; " A summer's day " ; article. " To go a hunt- 
fag "j preposition. "A few men"; a belongs to few men as denoting 
one aggregate. — See Few. 

Abed, ablaze, abroach, abroad, adrift^afoot, aloft, etc. When these words 
are used with active verbs, so as to imply manner, they are adverbs. 
When they are used with neuter verbs, so as to denote mainly the con- 
dition of the subject, they have very much the meaning of adjectives; 
but they are still considered adverbs, because they must be construed with 
verbs. When such words, however, are construed with nouns rather 
than with verbs, they become adjectives. — See Asleep. 

About. " What are you about ? "' prep. " He wanders about " ; adv. 

Above. " He sirs above me " ; prep. '* He sits above " ; adv. 

"Amounted to above a dozen." — Swift. Supply number, or call above a down. ^ 
noun. Adjuncts arc sometimes used for nouns, as well as for adjectives or adtcros. 

N 



210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Absolutely. " He is a friend." " He being a friend " ; " To be a friend." 

"He is frieudly." " To be friendly" ; '* His being a friend." 

By thus changing an intransitive verb into an infinitive or a participle, the substantive 
or adjective, joined to it, is frequently set free, or absolved, from its chief syntactical re- 
lation •, though it still remains connected with the infinitive or participle by a relation that 
is within the reach of Analysis, and that should be mentioned in analyzing. 

Adjectives- An adjective may imply equality, as good; quantity, as much; 
number, as jive ; time, as eternal; place, as near ; position, as perpen- 
dicular ; shape or form, as round ; activity, as studious, etc. Most of the 
definitive adjectives imply number, place, or relative distinction. 
Adieu. " Adieu ! adieu ! my native land." — Byron. Interjection. 

'• Wept a last adieu." " Bid him adieu" ; i. e. y say adieu to him. Noun. 
After. " He came after me" ; prep. " He came soon after" ; adv. 
'* He came after I left"; conjunctive adverb. 
Before, after, since, and till, are usually parsed as conjunctive adverbs 
when they stand before clauses ; though they are in reality prepositions that 
govern the clauses in the sense of nouns. 

Again. " Call again " ; adv. " Again and again " ,* i\ e., repeatedly ; 
adv. phr. *' Again, it has been frequently observed, that," etc. ; conj. 
In general, a phrase should be parsed as one word, when its meaning is 
different from that which the separated words give ; hence, again and again, 
through and through, ever and anon, now and then, here and there, over and 
over, should be considered adverbial phrases. So at all, at first, at once, at 
last, at least, at most, etc ; adv. phrases, rather than adjuncts. " Not at all " 
= not in any degree ; at all, adv. of degree, modified by not. 

Ago. " It happened a hundred years ago " ; adv. or adj. 

Long ago ; adv. phr., or make long modify ago, as in long before. 

Ago is an adverb, limiting happened, and limited itself by yearn according to Rule 
VI Or iiTis an adjective, meaning past, and belonging to years. *' Twenty years 
ayone." — Tillolson ; adj., or old participle. " It happened a year before" and simi- 
lar expressions, confirm the first solution. 

Alike. " They are alike " ; adj. " They please alike " ; adv. 
All 5 adj. " All places." " All this." " All ye." " Ye all." 
pkon. "All are but parts of one stupendous whole." 

"Wealth, pleasure, and honors, must all be given up." 
noun. " Our little all." " All of which." " He is all in all." 
adv. " I am all alone" ; i< e., wholly. 

"All heart they live, all head, all eye, all ear." — Milton. 
A word is sometimes so used that it has not the meaning of one part of 
speech only, but of two or three ; and if we may borrow a beautiful and 
expressive term from the florists, we would say that a word so used is a 
variegated part of speech. All is sometimes so used, and espeeially in the 
last example above. In the sentence, " They live all heart," all modifies 
adverbially neither live nor heart, but the predicate live heart. Note VII. 

All or both, when it limits the plurality of a noun or pronoun, is an adjective ; when it 
emphatically repeats the idea, an appositive. Some teachers call these words adjectives 
whenever they precede the substantives, and appositives when they follow them j but 



OBSERVATIONS. 211 



they should generally be considered adjectives, simply when they are joined to substan. 
tives or can be joined to them. " This is all that is done " 5 noun. "The sheep are alt 
here" •, adj. "The sheep are all of them here " 5 pron., appositive. "I was all at- 
tention" 5 adv., or adj. belonging to I. " It is all one to me " ; adv. or noun, according 
to the sense ; one, descriptive adjective. M He is all right," *. e., in all respects ; adv. 
For all in all, all over, all along, and all hollow, are generally adverbial phrases. 

Alas. " Alas for us ! " " Fie upon your law ! " interj. or noun. 

Alan is rather an interjection, and fie a noun. " Alas, I sigh for us !" " / say fie 
upon your law ! " Compare with, " To bid welcome." 

Alone; adv. " The boy studies alone'* Manner of studying. 
adj. " The boy alone studies." " Let it [be] alone" 

Also. " He is also blind "; adv. " The spring, and also the autumn, has 
its pleasures"; conj. phr. Or, and, conj. ; also, adv., Note VII. 

Antecedent. The antecedent of a pronoun is not the word which can 
be put in place of the pronoun, but the word elsewhere used in refer- 
ence to which the pronoun was chosen as a substitute. 

Therefore, when a pronoun is applied directly to the object itself, when the speaker can 
not be thought to have the supposed antecedent in his mind, and when the supposed 
antecedent does not first present, in the order of the sense, the object meant, Rule IX 
should not be applied. * 

Any. "Any person"; adj. "Any of them " ; pron. or adj. "Are you 
any better"; adverb, analogous to the adverb much. 

Apposition. " Ye men of Altorf." " It is known that he is here." Either 
term can be considered the appositive; but it is generally better to con- 
sider the pronoun the leading or principal term, and the other the 
appositive. " So, " In her brother Absalom's house." Absalom's is the 
explanatory and appositive word. " At Smith's, the bookseller "; book- 
seller, appositive, or else supply ivho is. 

Opposition, or identification in language, is a much more comprehensive idea than 
grammars represent it to be. It reaches not only substantives, but adjectives, adverbs, 
phrases, clauses, and other parts. (See §526 ; also Both, As, and Such.) When sub- 
stantives are put in apposition, they must agree in case. But sometimes, in accordance 
with the foregoing comprehensive idea of apposition, a substantive is put in apposition 
with a clause or an adjective that has not case 5 and then the substantive is in the nomi- 
native case, simply because a noun naturally prefers the nominative case, or comes into 
the world in the nominative case, when there is nothing to make it vary or dec line from 
this case. 

As 5 adv. " As cold as ice " ; degree, Conjunctive Adverb : " Skate as I 
• skate " ; manner. " It fell as I entered " ; time. And prob- 
ably, " As cold as ice" ; dpgree. 
conj. "As [since] we all must die, why not be charitable ? " 
"As it regards this, I have nothing to say." 
" Such characters are called letters; as, a, b, c," etc. 
" Appoint him as clerk " ; him and clerk are in apposition. 
pron. " Let such as hear, take heed " ; i. e., those who. 
prep. " I object to his appointment as clerk." 
m Here it seems rather better to call as a preposition than to say that his and clerk are 
in apposition ; but in sentences implying comparison, as should not be considered a 
preposition. 

As follows and as appears are generally best parsed as adverbial phrases, 
10 



212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

equivalent to thus and apparently: sometimes the pronoun it may be sup- 
plied. In parsing as regards and as concerns, it is probably best to supply 
it. As yet, adv. phr. ; as if, conj. phr. " They, as well as I, have writ- 
ten" ; conj. phr. "He has done as well as he could"; first as, adv. of 
degree, modifying the adverb well. 

"He concealed his good luck from everybody, as is usual in money dreams" ; i. e. 
as it is usual for people to do, etc. As, in this construction, is partially a relative pro- 
noun ; because which could be substituted for it. So, "Then the dust shall return to the 
earth, as it was." "I bought such as were new," i. e., those which ; identity; as, 
relative. " I bought such as you have," i. e., as those are which, etc. 5 similarity ; 
cs, rather conjunction, but considered a relative, to avoid troublesome distinctions^ "They 
geek out some particular herb, which they do not use as food " 5 food is in apposition 
with which. So, "The wood of the silver fir is not much used as timber." In both 
these sentences, it would be hardly improper to call as a preposition, equivalent to for. "I 
consider him as responsible" •, conj. adv. of manner. " Be so kind as to write to me " $ 
conj., or conj. adv. of degree. " As the tree falls, so it lies." Here the clause, as the 
tree falls, and the adverb so, can both be regarded as modifying lies ; or else the clause 
can be considered a modifier of so, by being related to it as a noun is related to the pro- 
noun with which it is put in apposition. — See That. 

Asleep. " He fell asleep " ; adv. " I found him asleep " ; adj. Asleep is 
strongly drawn into the analogy of awake and alive, and is therefore 
generally an adjective. 
Auxiliary Verbs. Some grammarians parse auxiliaries as independent 

verbs, and the rest of the verb as a participle or an infinitive. 
Ay. " Ay, so let it be " ; adv. " The ays have it " ; noun. 
Before. "He stood before me " ; prep. "I knew him before " ; adv. 

" He came before I returned " ; conj. adv. — See After. 
Below. " Fields below us " ; prep. " He went below " ; adv. " The 
shining fields below "; adj. " From below" ; noun. So, beneath. 
" From the supporting myrtles round, [adj.,] 
They snatched her instruments of sound." — Collins. 

By supplying words, round can be parsed as a preposition or an adverb. But the 
phrase or clause will still be an adjective element relating to myrtles; and it would seem 
that the same analogy of syntax should be allowed to run through word, phrase, and 
clause. Considered as an adjective, round is not a descriptive one ; but it still shows 
what myrtles are meant, and this specifying sense comes within the province of local de- 
finitive adjectives. 

Beside. "I stood beside him"; prep. ' k What do you know besides " ; 
adv. " To all beside it is an empty shade," i e., to all others. " O'er 
all the world beside," i. €., all the remaining world ; adj., or else adverb 
under Note VII, analogous to also and too. 
Best; adj. "Do what is best" 

adv. " He best can tell." " Tones he loved the best " ; adv. phr. 
. noun. " To do one's best." " Every creature's best." 
At best and at worst are generally adjuncts rather than adverbial phrases. 

Better. "I could have better [adv.] spared a, better [adj.] man." 

" To get the better of" ; " Take her for better or worse " ; noun. 
Blame. " He is to blame " = to be blamed; passive. — See § 401. 
Blow. " To blow up, out, away, off, down, back, in "; adverbs. 



OBSERVATIONS. 213 



Both 5 adj. "Mmen." " Both these." And probably, " We both." 
Both and all are about as much definite or demonstrative adjectives as they are in- 
definite adjectives ; though the}' are usually classed with the indefinite. 

pron. " The bee and the butterfly are both busybodies." 
conj. " She is both young and handsome/' 

It is remarkable that both, as a representative word, can relate to two nouns, or two 
pronouns, or two adjectives, or two adverbs, or two prepositions. At bottom, it has al- 
ways a pronominal or adjective meaning, or implies apposition ; but it is usually con- 
sidered a conjunction whenever it corresponds to and. 

Either and neither are used as both is used, with this additional peculiarity, that, 
when they are corresponding conjunctions, they can be applied to more than two. 

Burden. " A ship of two thousand tons burden " ; apposition. 

But; conj. " Sin may gratify, but repentance stings." 

" No creature is so helpless, but it can protect itself." 
prep. " Wheuce all but him had fled " ; t. e., except him. 

" None knew thee but to love thee." 

" What rests but that the mortal 'sentence pass ? " — Milton. 

" Man but for [without] this were active to no end." 
adv. " Words are but leaves " ; i. e., are only leaves. 
It is worthy of notice that the second conjunctive sense of but, as given above, is some- 
what prepositional, for it suggests the meaning of except ; and that more or less of this 
meaning lies at the bottom of all the difficult constructions of but. "I can but go" = I 
can only go. " I can not but go " = I can not do any thing except to go = I must go. 
It is probably best to consider but in the latter sentence a modal adverb, equivalent to 
otherwise than, and modifying the assertion (see p. 177) ; though different from but, 
only, which is an adverb of extent or quantity. So, "It can not but be obvious to you, 
that this state of things can not last."- — A. Lincoln. "Who but would deem their 
bosoms burned anew." — Byron. That is, who is there, but he would, etc. By thus 
supplying words, but becomes a conjunction. Sometimes, however, but is used in thia 
sense where words can not be thus supplied ; and it is certainly a more sensible mode of 
analysis to dispose of what the writer actually said, than of what we suppose he might; 
have said. Besides, the quoted sentence has become a condensed, idiomatic form of ex- 
pression. "Who hears him, but [he is] is converted by him?" conj. In the sentence, 
"Should none be left but he and J," supply should be left, and parse but as a conjunc- 
tion. This form of expression, however, is obsolescent •, but being now generally re- 
garded, in this construction, a preposition, and therefore followed by the objective case. 

By. "He passed by me"; prep. "He passed by"; "He lives near 

by " ; adv. " By the bye, there is a little debt behind " ; conj. phrase. 
Cheap. " To sell cheap goods " ; adj. " To sell goods cheap " ; adv. 

The second cheap is used for the adverbial adjunct, at cheap prices; and it shows 
the manner of selling. — See Make. 

Case. The possessive sign was originally is or cs. " King is crowne";. 
" Christes gospel." — Chaucer. By putting an apostrophe in place of 
c or i, a double advantage was gained, — the possessive sign was dis- 
tinguished from the plural sign, and language became in general one 
syllable shorter. 

Close. " To close the eyes " ; v. " At the close of the day " ; n. "A 
close fit" ; " To lie close" ; adj. <l Some dire misfortune lingers close 
behind " ; adj. or adv. 

Clown. " To play the clown " ; " To act the fool " ; nom. or obj. 
Nominative, if the meaning is, to be a clown ; objective, to act the part of. 

Come. " To come to " (revive). It is probably best to supply life. 



214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Comparison. Formerly, adjectives were more generally compared by er 

and est than at present. In Miiton we tind beauti fullest, virtuousest, etc. 

Superior, inferior, junior, interior, inner, etc., are adjectives in which the 

idea of comparison is also a part of the fundamental meaning; and they 

are therefore partly in the comparative degree, and partly in the positive. 

Hence they generally require to after them where pure comparatives would 

require than; and occasionally some of them may even be compared ; as, 

" This is still more inferior to the other." — Swift. 

Daggers. "To look or speak daggers," i. e., fierceness, threats; n. obj. 

Dear. " He sells dear," i. e., at dear prices ; adv., used fur adv. adjunct. 

" To pay dear for," i. e., a dear price ; adv., used for objective phrase. 

Dispense. " I can dispense with luxuries " ; " He disposed of his property/' 

" Luxuries are dispensed with " ; " The property was disposed of" 

Here it seems necessary to parse the verb and the preposition as one verb, a compound 
verb ; for the words lose their meaning when they are separated. — See § 386. 

Do* " This does away with [removes'] my objections " ; probably best 
parsed as a compound verb, for the meaning of the phrase is lost when 
the words are separated. " He has directions what to do." To do de- 
pends on directions, and governs what. " I have more than I know 
what to do with " = J 7 have more than that is with which I know what 
to do. To do, with the remaining words of its phrase, is the object of 
know (Note IV) ; and ivhat is used as the object of to do, § 203. "I 
am done for" ; v., passive. " I am done," i. <?., / have finished my work ; 
passive in form, but active in sense. Do, thus used, is an excellent 
specimen of what would be called, in Latin grammars, a deponent verb. 

Draw. " To draw up, down, on, off, out, away, over, in, back " ; adverbs, 
" To draw near, nigh, close, tight" ; adjectives. 

Drink. " To drink the cup dry " ; phrase, object of drink. 

Say, in parsing cup, that it is in the objective case, being, with the remainder of the 
phrase, of which it is the chief word, the object of the verb drink, according to Note IV. 
Then parse dry as an adjective. 

Each. "Each man " ; adj. " They took one each," pron., Rule VII. 

"They help each other V "They help one another." Here' each can be parsed as 
being in apposition with they, or else each other can be parsed as one word (see § 209). 
" They deemed each other oracles of law." — Pope. In this sentence, oracles can not be 
put in apposition with either each or other, but must be put in apposition with both con- 
sidered as one expression. It is true, as Mr. Brown saj T s, that the Latin alii alios proves 
that the words should be parsed separately ; but it is just as true that the Greek aAAijAwp 
and the German einander prove that they should be parsed together. 

Ellipsis. The following are the most common kinds of ellipsis : — 

Article : " A noun or [a\ pronoun." " The first and [the] last." 

Adjective : " He is wiser than you are" [wise]. 

Noun : "At St. Paul's " [Church]. " Peter the Great " [Emperor]. 

Pronoun : " Be [ye] seated." " Take all [that] there is." 

Verb : " To whom thus Michael " [spoke]. [Rise] " Up, Glenarkin." 

" And [am] I to be a corporal in his field ! " " Dark [is] the day." 

" Myself [being] a refugee." " Let me [to be] alone." [etc. 

"With here and there a pearl"; i. c, with a pearl placed here, 



OBSERVATIONS. 215 

Preposition : "Bring [to] me your slate." 

Conjunction: "Proud, stern, [and] inflexible." "I believe [that] he is 

Phrase : ll Pew are more resoiute than he " [is resolute]. [at home." 

" O [how much I wish] that those lips had language ! " 
Clause : " He returned j I know not why " [he returned]. 

The words most commonly omitted are those little ones which help to 
make syntax rather than to express thought. 

Else* "Any one else" i. e., any other one; adj. Else usually follows 
the word which it modifies. " How else [otherwise] can I do it ? " adv. 
" He has not returned yet, else [or] he would write " ; conj. 

Enough. " Good enough "; adv. " Money enough " ; adj. " To have 
enough " ; noun. 

Even. " Thy charms taught even toil to please." " I, even I, was there." 

It is customary to call even, in the first of these sentences, an adverb 5 and in the sec- 
ond, a conjunction. But it has the same meaning in both •, and it plainly relates, in the 
first, Lo the object, and in the second to the appositive. (Note VII.) It is better to say 
that such a word relates to the subject, the object, the predicate, or some other syntactical 
element, than to say that it relates to a noun or pronoun ; for it affects the syntax, or the 
train of thought, rather than describes an object. 

In the syntax of all languages are used certain little words that are promissory or re- 
iterative ; or that are designed to produce some identifying, intensifying, amplifying, or 
attenuating effect upon the flow of thought or the train of ideas Taese little words are 
generally adverbial or conjunctive in sense , but sometimes they defy classification. 

Every, '* Every one " ; adj. " Each and evert/ of them " ; pron., obsolete. 

"Every now and then " ; adv. phr, Or call now and then nouns ; Rule 

Fair. " To bid fair " ; i. e., to be fair in appearance, hence adj. [VI. 

Fall. " We fell out, — my wife and I." — Tennyson. u To fall foul of." 

Fall oat does not have the meaning of fall and out ; for it means to quarrel, and 
therefore the whole phrase should probably be parsed as a compound verb. (See § 386.) 

Far. " A far country " ; adj. " Far away " ; " Far up the hill " ; adv., 
modifying the word or phrase which follows it. u He went thus \ far " ; 
advs. " From far " ; " Thus far is right " ; noun. " He went as far 
as Richmond, i. e., to Richmond, not, as far as Richmond is; prep. 

Farewell* " Farewell, my friends ! " interj. " A long farewell " ; " To 
bid [say] farewell " [to] ; noun. " A farewell address " ; adj. 

Fast. " A long fast " ; adj. and n. " To fast long " ; v. and adv. " To 
walk fast " ; " Fast asleep " ; adv. fl To tie him fast " ; adj. " Siloa's 
brook that flowed fast by the oracle of God " ; adv., showing where. 

Few. " A few men "; "A dozen men " ; " A thousand men " ; adj. 
" A few of us ; " The few and the maw/ " ; "Two and two "; " By tens " ; n. 

A, in the first example, belongs to the rest of the phrase considered as denoting but one 
aggregate. Strictly speaking, the words few, dozen, many, thousand, etc., are varie- 
gated parts of speech, — partly noun and partly adjective ; the substantive sense allow- 
ing the article before them, and the adjective sense enabling them to coalesce adjectively 
with the nouns after them. Sometimes they are nouns 5 and sometimes it is best to make 
them nouns in parsing, by supplying of. 
FeW) and some words like it, though usually called nouns, are very nearly pronouus. 
* Truths would you teach, or save a sinking land ? 
All fear, none aid you, and few understand." — Pope, 



216 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

First; adj. " Glenara camels/ M ; i. e., was first in coming. 

adv. " To write first, then send." u At first " ; adv. phrase. 

For. " Send /or him " ; prep. k< I sent, for it was necessary " ; conj. 
" Taken for granted " ; i. c, for a thing granted. " We live for good or 
evil " ; " I deem it [to be] for good to do so " ; " Taken for perfect " ; 
rather, adjuncts. 

u For him to speak would be injudicious " = To speak, for him, would be injudicious j 
i. e., on his part. But if to speak is referred to him, then the whole phrase must be 
parsed as a noun. — See Above. 

Full. " Bring it full " ; adj. " Full many a flower " ; adv. 

Gender 5 the meaning of a word in regard to sex. A word can mean a 
male, a female, either, or neither; hence there can be four genders while 
there are but two sexes ; and to have four genders is a great conveni- 
ence in speaking of words. 

Hail. " Hail, horrors ! " interj. " He bade the stranger hail " ; noun. 

Half. " A half section of land " ; adj. ' " Half the men," i. e. y half of, 

etc. ; n. " To go halves with " ; n., Rule VI. " Half dead " ; adv. 

** He returns half fiddler, groom, and cook/' — Jenyns, abridged. 

Half, in the last sentence, seems to be an adverb, modifying the whole of the following 
appositive phrase, which has the descriptive force of an adjective ; Note VII. If parsed 
as an adjective, it should be referred to all the following nouns as one whole. 

Hand. "To go hand in hand"; adv. phr., or supply being. 

Hard. "It is hard"; adj. "To study hard"; adv. Observe that 
hardly is a different word. "Hard by a forest's side"; adv. of place, 
modifying the adjunct after it. 

Have. " I have to let a house " ; active, depending on have. " I have a 
house to let"; passive, depending on house. (See §401.) "Have it 
done to-day." "The witnesses testified that they saw him buried"; 
i. e.y they saw his burial ; or, they saw that he was buried. Done is proba- 
bly the perfect passive participle ; but buried is rather the present passive 
infinitive, to be being understood. 
" I had as lief not be, as be the thing I am." — Shale. 
" He had better have taken cold than taken our umbrella." — Mrs Caudle. 
Had °, verb, subjunctive mood, implying conclusion ; past tense in form, but, like were, 

present in sense. [To] be ; infinitive, depending on had. So, to have taken. §§ 410, 482. 

High. " The spacious firmament on high " ; adjunct. 

" The day-spring from on high " ; phrase used as a noun, Note IV. 

" They fired too soon, and too high. 1 ' -Bancroft. Adv. 
How. " How deep " ; adv. of degree. " I know not how to do it" ; conj. 

adv. " How much is it ? " "I was glad to get even so much." 

" How, in the phrase how to do it, modifies to do ; and joins the phrase to the verb 
know. To do, with the remaining words of the phrase of which it is the chief word, is 
used as the object of knoiv ; Note IV. 

In parsing each of the remaining examples, supply a noun ; or it is still better to parse 
all such mixed constructions in this way : So is an adverb modifying much as an adjec- 
tive ; much is an adjective modified by so ; and it is also a noun, the object of to get. 

However. " However great "; adv. " Great, however, as he is," etc. ; conj. 



OBSERVATIONS. 217 

I. " Love of fame makes 1 the little hero of each tale " j n., 3d p., obj. 

" When Frog took possession of any thing, it was always said to he 

foi us ; and why may not John Bull be us, as well as Nic. Frog was 

us ?" — Swift. The first us is a pronoun ; but the others are nouns, in 

the 3d person, and nominative case. 

" Said I to myself, and myself said to me, 

1 Take care of thyself; for none care for thee.' " 

Separate mykelf in parsing ; self, — noun, 3d pers. ; thyself, pron, 

" Poor, guiltless // and can I choose but smile ? " Rule II. 

" Me miserable ! " i. e., woe is to me. u Ah me ! " " Oh me! " 

The supplied words are not satisfactory. In truth, notwithstanding what grammars 
teach, there is in the English language an exclamatory objective independent as well as 
an exclamatory nominative independent 5 the former being used when the speaker is in 
a passive or suffering condition, and the latter in other cases. 

III. " To fare ill v ; adv. " He was taken ill" i. e., became sick; adj. 
Impersonal. An inappropriate word, for the verbs have person. Uniper- 

sonal is also inappropriate, for all verbs not applicable to persons must 

be uni personal. Unsubjective would be a better expression. 
Infinitives. " The infinitive is no mode at all." — Prof. Gibbs of Yale CoL 

"The infinitive has no claim to be considered a mood." — Barnard. 

" The infinitives." — Dr. Whately. " The participials/' — G. P. Marsh. 
Dr. "Whately calls both the infinitive and the participle infinitives ; because both are 
not finite, or have not person and number. Mr. Marsh calls both participials ; be- 
cause they have the meaning of verbs, and also partake of the nature of other parts of 
speech. But neither calls either of these forms of the verb a mood. We might add much 
argument and authority in favor of our classification, as given on p. 119 5 but we have 
not room. Every act or state must belong to some person or thing 5 and, in the parsing 
of participles and finite verbs, this fact is made the basis of the Rule. Therefore it seems 
to us not altogether proper to disregard this truth wholly in parsing the infinitive ; but 
most teachers prefer such a Rule as we have given on p. 195- Were we teaching, 
however, we should prefer the following Rule : — 

Rule XII. : — An Infinitive relates to an expressed or indefinite subject, and 

generally depends on some other word. 

" He was anxious to return." To return relates to he, and depends on anxious, ac- 
cording to Rule XII. " The wagons were so arranged as to protect the camp." To pro- 
tect relates to warjons, and depends on as. "Here was an opportunity to grow rich." 
To grow relates to an indefinite- subject, and depends on opportunity. The subject of 
an infinitive is the noun or pronoun denoting the object to which the act or state belongs ; 
and such a subject may be in the objective case, as well as in the nominative. But our 
language does not, like the Latin, allow a Rule for the subject of the infinitive, as being 
put in the objective case because the infinitive depends on it *, for such an object, in Eng- 
lish, has always a verb or preposition before it by which it is governed. 

Iii order. " We were now obliged to gallop, in order to reach the boat." 

In order is not so much an adjunct that modifies the verb before it, as it is an adverbial 
phrase that modifies the infinitive after it by strengthening the idea of purpose. In fact, 
while to is the common sign of the infinitive, in order to is the formal or strengthened 
sign, which is generally preferred when the infinitive is considerably removed from the 
verb on which it depends, or when it depends on another infinitive immediately before it. 

Inversion. The following are the principal kinds of inversion : -*- 

Rhetorically arranged: " My native shore with sighs and tears I leave." 

Grammatically arranged: I leave my native shore with sighs and tears. 



218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Logical or grammatical arrangement is that which the sense requires in parsing. 
Rhetorical arrangement is some deviation from grammatical arrangement, for the sake 
Of rhythm or effect. 

" Through glades and glooms the mingled measure stole/' 

The mingled measure stole through glades and glooms. 
"Mute was his tongue, and upright stood his hair." 

His tongue was mute, and his hair stood upright. 
" O Time ! than gold more precious " ; i. e., more precious than gold. 
" Oh, what a situation I am placed in ! " i. e., in what a situation, etc. 
" When first thy sire to send on earth 
Virtue, his darling child, designed." 
When first thy sire designed to send Virtue, his darling child, on earth* 
Irregular Verbs, in the course of time, sometimes become regular ; but 
regular verbs never become irregular, except that ed is sometimes 
changed to t. 

In old writers and in poets, we sometimes find Joaden, mollen, and 
bounden, used for the participles loaded, melted, and bound; also clomb, 
for climbed: rid, for rode; heat, for heated; and writ, for wrote or written. 
It. "It was I " = That }>crson was I. Almost demonstrative. 
" It is easy to do so " = This thing, to do so, is easy. 
" It is 12 o'clock " = The time is twelve o'clock. 
" It rains." " It thunders." See $§ 465 and 184. 
" Come, and trip it, as you go, on the light, fantastic toe." — Milton, 
It here vaguely denotes doing or action. 
Known. " Some men employ their time — an ugly trick — 

In making known how oft they have been sick." — Coivpcr. 

Trick ; noun, nom. case, in apposition with the clause before it. (See Apposition.} 
[To be] known is a passive infinitive, depending on the clause that follows it, which is 
used as a noun. 

Large. " To go at large" adv. phr. "The statutes at large " ; adjunct. 
Late. " He is late " ; adj. " He came late " ; adv. or adj. " He worked 
late " ; adv. " He came lately " ; adv. ( See Short. ) "Of late " ; n. 
Perhaps better : Late is an adjective relating to he ; and an adverb, modifying came. 
(He was late in coming.) So, " He worked late " j i. c, to a late hour. 

Lay. " To lay waste " ; Rule VI. " He was laid hold of " / verb. 

Let. " Let out, \etoff, let on, let in, let down " ; adverbs, modifying sren- 
erally some verb understood, as go or come, " Let loose " = Let it be 
or go loose; adj. " Let go " ; verb, depending on it and let. 
Let is essentially the auxiliary verb which serves to express the imperative mood in 

the first or third person. It is unlike other auxiliaries, however, in being transitive ; and 

therefore it prevents the intervening substantive, by governing it in the objective case, 

from becoming the subject. 

Like. Adv. or adj., § 531 . " I like this " ; v. " I never saw the like " ; n. 

"John began to chuckle and laugh, till he was like to burst his sides." 

— Swift. " He had like to have knocked John's hat into the fire." — 

Id. " I had like to have fallen." — Cowper. 

Dr. "Worcester calls like here a noun ♦, and several passages in Gulliver's Travels giva 
plausibility to this disposal of the word : but it seems to us that like is rather an advert 



OBSERVATIONS. 219 



in all these cases, and modifies the following infinitive, which depends on the preceding 
was or had. "Like enough " is an obsolescent expression for likely enough. 

" The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold." There is a peculiarity in this 
sentence. On can not be parsed without supplying a verb. When a finite verb, however, 
is supplied, like becomes a conjunctive adverb •, but at the same time it ceases to be proper, 
and must give place to as. Supply coming after wolf, and you avoid the difficulty. 

Little. " Little better " ; adv. " A little better " ; noun, Rule VI. 

Long. " I long for rest " ; v. " A long rest " ; adj. " To rest long n • adv. 

Look* " To look big," i. e., with insolence ; adv., manner of looking. 

Loose, " To break loose" i. e., become suddenly loose) adj. — See Let. 

Loud. " A loud noise " ; adj. " To talk loud "; adv. 

Low. "To be low"; " To sink low"; adj. " To lie low"; adj., some- 
times adv. "To aim low"; "To speak low" ; " To sell low" ; adv. 
When the lowncss is in the subject, low is an adj. ; when in the verb, an adv. 

Make. "To make bold with"; "To make free wii\\' K ; i.e., to be bold 
with, etc ; adj. <k To make sure of," i. e. } to make one's self sure of, 
or, to make [a] sure [thing] of; adj. " To make away with " ; adv., or 
compound verb. " To make much of " ; n. " He was made much of" ; 
compound passive verb, § 400. "By selling all, he will make out to pay 
his debts"; compound verb. " To make light of," i.e., a light matter 
of, — to regard lightly ; adv. 
Perhaps better : Bold is an adjective, relating to the subject ; and it is also a noun, the 

object of make. Light is an adjective, relating to some noun understood } and it is also 

a noun, the object of make. So, '-To pay dear." — See Dear. 

Methinks. " Mcthinks I see a noble and puissant nation." — Milton. 

Methinks is a defective irregular verb, of the indie, mood, pres. tense, 3d pers., and 
?. n. 3 hut used without a subject. Or else say, Methinks is an anomalous expression, 
used, by the figure ena'lage, for J think. 

Thinks is used in the sense of seems ; an old meaning still retained in this expression, 
though not generally understood so. " Where it thinks best unto your royal self." — Shak. 

Mistake. " I was mistaken for my brother " ; passive verb. " I thought I 

saw you ; but I was mistaken." Deponent verb; see Do. 
Mood. If our excluding the infinitive and the participle from moods 
be approved, then we would offer the following definition of mood in 
preference to the one given on p. 131 : Mood is that property of verbs 
which shows how the act or state is predicated or regarded with refer- 
ence to its subject. 
More. " More work " ; adj. " More entertaining" ; adv. " To get more " ; n. 
" Say no more " ; no, adj. ; more, noun. " Your parents are no more" ; 
"I will not do so any more" i. e., again; adv. phr. [adv. phr. 

"He becomes more and more angry " ; adv. phr. — See Again. 
" The more we urged him, the more he resisted " ; adv. phr. 
Parse the more first as an adverbial phrase, and apply Rule XIII -, then say that it i3 
used also as a correlative connective, relating to the more of the other clause, and help- 
ing it to unite the two clauses according to Rule XV. 

Much. " Much money " ; adj. " To have much " ; n. " He reads much " / 
n. or adv. " He sleeps much" ; adv. "Much the stronger " ; n., Rule VI. 

Must sometimes belongs to the past or the past-perfect tense of the po- 
tential mood, as well as to the present tense or the perfect. "I knew he 
must rise." — Byron. " But for this, the ship must have sunk" — Arnot. 



220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Names. " He called me names" Rule VI. [it"; n. 

Nay. "Nay, do not weep"; adv. "To say nay" ; "The nays have 

Nay and yea are sometimes used as amplifiers, to indicate aa emphatic addition of 
something more. When thus used, it is generally best to call them conjunctions. 

Near. Near is generally considered an adjective; though it has .some- 
times partly the nature of a preposition, and sometimes partly that of 
an adverb. It is not called a preposition, because it can be compared, 
and sometimes has to after it ; and it is not called an adverb, because it 
lias the adverb nearly. 
No. '• No place " ; adj. " No farther " ; adv. " No, never ! " indepen- 
dent advorb, Note VIII. 
None. "None sorrowed more"; pron. "None the better"; Rule VI. 
" Silver and gold have I none" ; adj., belonging to silver audgold, § 183. 
Nouns-. A noun may denote a person, as man ; a spiritual being, as 
angel ; an animal inferior to man, as dog ; a thing, as house; a place, 
as Boston; time, as day; a quality, as goodness', action, as toil, etc. 
Collective nouns do not include such words as jewelry, furniture, etc. 
Complex Nouns. — Some grammarians call such words as John Smith, 
Charles XII, and Duke of Wellington, complex nouns. 

Most of the older grammarians teach that each word of such a name should be parsed ; 
and some of them say that John, of the name John Smith, is an adjective, because it 
shows what Smith is meant ; while others insist as strenuously that Smith is in apposi- 
tion with Johv., because it shows what John is meant i It is probably best to parse the 
whole name as one noun. 

Concrete Novns, the names of objects with their qualities ; as, snow. 
Abstract Nouns, the names of qualities without their objects ; as, whiteness. 
Diminutive Nouns, the names of small objects as distinguished from large 

ones of tin same kind; as, hillock from hill. 
Material Nows, the names of substance in mass ; as, water. 
Nouns, Pioper and Common. — The same word is sometimes a proper and 

sometime? a common noun. " The planets are Mercury, Venus, Earthy 1 

etc. " The sun shines upon the earth." " Sunday precedes Monday " ; 

"Preaching on every Sunday." 
It is not necessary, and perhaps hardly proper, to apply the distinction of proper and 
common, to participles, infinitives, or clauses, that are used as nouns •, but gender, per- 
son, and number, should be mentioned, on accouut of the relations which such expressions 
have to pronouns and verbs, 

Now. " Now is the time to repent" ; adv. "Now is the time to repent 
in "; n. " Now Barabbas was a robber" ; conjunction, implying tran- 
sition. " Now — now " ; advs., nnd also correlative connectives. 

Number. En was a plural termination in the Saxon language ; hence we 
have oxen, children, and even kine is a contraction of cowen, and the 
poetic eyne (eyes) of eyen. In old writers, we also find verbs with this 
plural ending. (See p. 58.) Formerly, nouns had the ending ?e in 
stead of y ; as, " A gentle Ladie" — Spenser. Hence, according to 
some writers, the change of y to ie in the plural ; as, ladies. 

OfT. Adv. or prep. "He is well off," i. e., rich; adj. " Off with his 
head! " imper. adv.; Note VIII, for no suitable verb can be supplied. 



OBSERVATIONS. 221 

Old. " Old men " ; adj. " Days of old " ; " The young and the old " ; n. 
Once. "At once came forth whatever creeps " ; adv. phr. "Now, just 

this once, we must go on the same as ever" ; noun, Rule VI. 
Only. " The only man " ; adj. " I propose my thoughts only as conjec- 
tures " ; adv., relating to the appositive phrase, as conjectures. See § 527. 
Opposed. " I am opposed to this " ; deponent verb. — See Mistake. 
Ours, yours, hers, etc., are either personal pronouns in the possessive case, or 
else adjective pronouns of the third person and in the nominative or the 
objective case. 

These words occupy a middle position between personal pronouns and adjective pro- 
nouns. Ours, for instance, may be equivalent to our books ; and hence it may be re- 
garded either as having the gender, person, number, and case of our, or as having the 
gender, person, number, and case of books. The former view is the one generally taken 
in English grammars -, but the latter is strongly sustained by the analogy of some foreign 
languages. In the English language, relative pronouns are used to suit either part of the 
composite word ; and this is rather a conclusive argument that the words should be parsed 
as Ave have shown on p. 74. "A weary life is theirs, who have no work to do." "My 
umbrella being torn, I will take yours, which is better." 

" 'T was thine to lead our warrior bands " ; i. e., thy part. But in parsing the phrase, 
"This poor self of mine," for instance, why may we not simply say that the adjective ad- 
junct of mine is used as a definitive adjective belonging to self? — See p 98. 

Out. " To put out ; to branch out ; to break out ; to draw out ; to run out ; 
to cutout: to make out; to look out; to play out," etc. ; adverbs. 

Over. " We passed over the bridge " ; prep. " Over against the church 
stands a hospital " ; prep. " We passed over " ; " I turned over a leaf" ; 
" It ran over" ; " It is over," i. e., gone over; " There were twenty dol- 
lars over," i. e., in excess ; adv. " Over and above" ; adv. phr. 

Participial Adjectives. — A participial adjective is derived from a verb, 
has little or no reference to time, and generally precedes the noun which 
it qualifies, and which would be the subject if the participle were a 
finite verb. 

The following are also participial adjectives : " God's presence is renewing, sanctify- 
ini?, , and lightening to the soul." — Bunyan. "The office was unsolicited and un~ 
desired by me." — McCulloch. "Boughs unshaken by the wind." — Bryant As a 
general rule, prefixes do not change the part of speech ; and suffixes do. When un is 
prefixed to a participle, but can not be prefixed to the verb, some grammarians call the 
word thus formed an adjective ; others, a participle. It seems to us that such words 
should be called participial adjectives. The word undesired, for instance, as given 
above, can not make a passive verb with was, and therefore it is not a pure participle ; 
but it takes after it the preposition by, as required by participles, and not to, as required 
by adjectives, and therefore it is not strictly an adjective. 

Such words as talented, double-barreled, unepitaphed, etc., which are formed from 
nouns, and take the ending ed simply to give them something of an adjective form, are 
adjectives. Also such words as parsing, in the phrase parsing exercises. 

Compound participles, as treated in this book, are to simple participles, somewhat as 
compound pronouns are to simple pronouns. 

Participial Nouns. Whenever a participle is used with a verb or prep- 
osition in such a way that it assumes case, it may be called a participial 
noun ; and it may then have the modifiers of either a verb or a noun, 
but not always a part of each class. 

A participial noun that has the modifiers of a verb, should be parsed 
first as a participle and then as a noun. — See p. 206. 

Peas, number ; pease, quantity ; — a frivolous and pedantic distinction. 



222 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Pleonasm. "It curled not Tweed alone, that breeze" — Scott, 
"My banks they are furnished with bees." — Shemtone. 
It seems to us that it would be better to apply to such examples the Rule for apposition 
than the Rule for nominatives independent : for, in general, no extraordinary principle 
should be applied where an ordinary one will do as well ; and the examples are analo- 
gous to such as " Ye mountains," " I myself," in which the pronoun merely strengthens 
the expression. But when the words are plainly different in case, or when the mode of 
expression is different, Rule II may be preferable. 

Possessive. " As Eden's garden bird." — Hallech " Houghton's JEsop's 

Fables." " The Duke of Wellington's forces." " Jones the saddler's 

wife." "At her brother Absalom's house." "Turner and Mason's 

m store." " Turner's and Mason's store." 

Eden's is governed by garden, and Eden's garden is an adjective belonging to bird. 
Houghton's, is governed by the phrase ^Esop's Fables. Duke, Jones, and brother, 
should be considered the possessive words on which the names of the possessed objects 
depend. Turner is governed by store expressed; and Turner's, by store under- 
stood. — See Ours. 

Post. " He rides post " ; adv. ; or noun, under Rule VI or VII, accord- 
ing to the sense. 

" He is the post, and rides " •, or, " lie rides like the post, or by post." The sentence 
seems to be analogous to " She walks a queen " ; " He struts a dandy " ; and, if so, the 
same Rule should be applied to it, though most teachers call post simply an adverb. 

Prithee. " I prithee " = I pray thee. M Prithee, say no more " ; inter}. 

Put. " To put up with it " ; i. e., to bear. " To put up at an hotel." 
Probably each phrase should be parsed as a compound verb. 

Pronouns. Pronouns were probably the first of names, and afterwards 
adopted as general substitutes for nouns ; hence pronouns sometimes 
have no antecedents. 

Adjective Pronouns. — By supplying suitable nouns after them, most ad- 
jective pronouns can be parsed as adjectives ; and- those few which can 
not, might be parsed as personal pronouns, for they are always of the 
third person. Since pronouns represent nouns with their modifications, 
most adjective pronouns represent themselves, and the nouns understood. 

Responsive or Indirect Interrogative Pronouns. " Who he was, is the ques- 
tion." Here no antecedent can be supplied before who; nor is who a 
direct interrogative. Such a pronoun resembles a relative pronoun, 
because it makes its clause dependent; and it resembles also an adjec- 
tive pronoun, because it is equivalent to the same phrase, and implies 
uncertainty. Some grammarians call such pronouns indefinite. Some- 
times an antecedent can be supplied, and the pronoun can then be 
parsed as a relative. 

Quite* " She is quite a beauty." " He is almost a poet." 

Quite and almost are adverbs, modifying the predicates. Note VII. 

Right. " Our rights " ; n. " It is right " ; adj. " All is going on right " ; 

adj., §534. "You did right" i. e., what is right; adj. or n. (See 

Make.) " Right Reverend " ; " Right noble prince "; adv. "Right 

away " ; " Right off" ; adv. phr. 

Rule VI. — Nouns that signify ichich way, how far, how much, how long, 



OBSERVATIONS. 223 



or time when, are sometimes put in the objective case, without a prep- 
osition expressed 

We insert this Rule here, because some teachers may prefer it to Rule VI, on p. 192 j 
though we ourselves prefer that Rule, which is more comprehensive. 

Rule VII. — 1. A Noun or Pronoun, added to another for explanation or 

emphasis, is put, by apposition, in the same case. 

2- A Noun or Pronoun, after an intransitive or a passive verb, is put in 

the same case as the subject, when it denotes the same person or thing. 

We insert this Rule here, because some teachers may prefer it to Rule VII, on p. 192 •, 

though we ourselves prefer that Rule. 

Run. " To run riot" ; i. e., in or into riot. Rule VI. 
" The brooks ran nectar." " The streams ran blood." 
"Forthwith on all sides to his aid was run 
By angels many and strong." — Milton. 
11 is customary to say that ran is transitive, and governs nectar and blood ; but the 
meaning in the first example plainly seems to be, that the' brooks were, nectar, and hence 
nectar is a predicate-nominative. The next example is doubtful ; for it may mean simply 
that the rivers carried blood, or flowed with blood ; and if this is the sense, Rule IV or 
VI should be applied. In the last example, was run is an impersonal verb, and a pure 
Latinism. — See p. 195. 

Save and but are prepositions when followed by the objective case, and 
conjunctions when followed by the nominative case. — ■ See p. 293. 

Seize. " To seize something." l< To seize on something " ; comp. v. 

Set. " To set up, off. out, apart, by, forth, over," etc. ; adverbs. 

Short. "To be short of money " ; adj. "To stop short"; adv. "To 
come short of" ;, " To fall short of" ; i. e., to be short of; adj. " He 
cut him short with this remark"; adv. "To stop short" (manner), 
and " To stop shortly'* (time), are very different. 

Sit. " To sit up late " ; v. intr. " I sit me down " (poetic) ; v. tr. " To 
sit the matter out " ; v. tr. " She sits a horse well " ; " He plods his 
weary way." On may be supplied in the last two examples, but it is 
not improbable that the idiomatic sense makes the verbs transitive. 

Situated, " London is situated on the Thames " ; adj. 

So. " So frowned the combatants " ; adv. of manner. " It is so cold " ; 
adv. of degree. " So he does it, no matter when" ; conj. " A wry 
mouth or .so was all." — Swift. Noun. So is often used as a sort of 
pro-word, to represent a word, phrase, or clause ; and to express not 
only manner, but frequently condition, thus having the force of an ad- 
jective ; but as it must be always construed with a verb, it is still con- 
sidered an adverb. " He is very stingy, but she is more so." 

Something. " Of worm or serpent kind it something looked." Rule VII. 

Such. '• Such and such a one." — Swift. Adj. "I do not regard his 
rules as such" i. e., as rules ; pron., apposition. " Some flowers have 
beautiful names ; such as hearVs-ease, daisy, honeysuckle," etc. 
Such, in this last sentence, is a pronoun, in apposition with names, as being included 

in it ; and as. is a relative pronoun, predicated of hear Vs -ease, etc., by the verb are 

understood. Such could also be referred tojlowers. 

Take. u To take hold of; to take care of; to take up ; to take on," 



224 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



"He takes after his father" ; t. e., resembles. " We should not take up 
with mere probabilities." — Watts, That is, — should not adopt. "They 
took to the woods " ; i. e. y took themselves. 
Take is sometimes used in such close combination with its modifiers, that the words 

can not be parsed with any perception of their separate meanings. In such cases the 

whole phrase may be treated as a compound verb. — See § 386. 

Than. "He is wiser than I" [am]; conj., connecting clauses. "Who 
forgets the more than Homer of his age % " conj., connecting words. 
" Beelzebub, than whom, Satan except, none higher sat." — Milton. 
Than whom is an inelegant expression ; though it is somewhat analogous to the 
abridged phrase but me, but him. Than, in the foregoing example, is usually considered I 
a preposition. It may also be parsed as a conjunction, by saying that whom is used for 
who, by the figure enallagt. " I have more trouble than I can bear " 5 i. e., than that 
is which I can bear." This construction of than is so nearly like that of the relative as, 
that it almost makes than a relative or else as a conjunction : " I have as many as he " *, 
" I have more than he." " This aunt Deborah had no more than a small life annuity." 
Here annuity is put in apposition with more, being included in it *, for the meaning is 
not that she had no more than a small life annuity is, but that she actually had the small 
annuity ; the idea of identity predominates over that of comparison. As sometimes 
connects words in apposition, and than is a similar word •, besides, than, as used above, 
would became as, if translated into German. 

That; adj. "That man." [hood/' 

adj. pron. " No other home seems so lovely as that of my child- 
rel. pron. " It was he that assisted me." [ing." 

conj. "I believe that all sickness is caused by improper liv- 

"flere is love, in that while we were yet Christ died for us." — Bunyan. In 

governs the whole clause after it 5 or else, only that, with which the clause after it is put 
in apposition. "A few, that is, eight or ten, were saved"; conj , or supply number. 
u Fool that I was, no one knew it" = A/though I was plainly the great fool that I was, 
no one knew it. By thus supplying words, this difficult idiom can be parsed ; but the 
supplied words hardly preserve the sense. — So, «* Young as he is, few are his equals." 
Or obe treat the sentences as if that and as were though. 

The* "• The man'' ; article. " The more we have, the more we want"; 

article " The deeper, Me cooler"; adv., and correlative connective. 

" The. better to converse"; adv. phr. "He did the best"; adv. phr. 

When the relates to a noun, it is an article ; to an adjective, an adverb ; 

to an adverb, it forms with it an adverbial phrase. 
Then; adv. " Did you hear it thunder then ? " 

conj. " If you think so, then do not purchase." 
There. See p. 177. " The ride there and back was delightful " ; adj., show- 
ing what ride. "To the house thereof" ; " And the fame hereof" ; 

"Time when" ; " The place where" ; " All things whatsoever" ; adj. 
Til!. "Stay till to-morrow"; prep. "Stay till I return"; conj. adv. 

"Till now"; "Till then"; adv. phr.; better, adjuncts. 
Times. " Three times the son's age is equal to the father's." " Five 

times four are twenty." " Five times one are five." 
There is an inconsistency in the foregoing modes of expression. Custom, however, 
seems determined to uphold them all. To parse them as they are, apply Rule VI to 
times in the first example, and to four and one in the others. The son's age, taken 
three times, etc. Five times of four', as to four, or in regard to four, etc. 

To is a preposition ; also the sign of the infinitive, and a part of it 

Since the infinitive was not intended for predication, it needed not an auxiliary verb 
for its sign 5 and therefore it adopted to as being best suited to express the general idea 
of tendency. 



OBSERVATIONS. 225 



Too. "Too small"; adv. of degree. "Since he went, I will go too. 

" Devotion, too, hath lingered round each spot of consecrated ground. " 

Too, in the last two examples, is rather conjunctive ; and, in the last one, its construc- 
tion is so nearly like that of the conjunction however, that it would be hardly improper 
to call it simply a conjunction. Too, also, likewise, even, besides, etc., generally re- 
late to a part of a sentence, and at the same time refer it back conjunctively to a similar 
part that is either expressed or implied. To those who wish to be critically nice in pars- 
ing these words, we would say, first parse the word as an adverb, relating to some part of 
the sentence according to Note VII •, and then say, that it is also used as a conjunction, 
connecting this part to, etc., according to Rule XV. — See p. 177 and § 527. 

Up. " To march up a hill"; prep. " To rise up; keep up; go up"; 

adv. " Man's life is full of ups and downs " ; nouns. 
Upwards. " Upwards of twenty houses were burned." 
n About twenty houses were burned." 
" In a sermon there may be from three to six heads." 
The whole phrase, in the first and the last example, can be parsed as a noun ; or sup- 
ply the words number and heads. Some grammarians call upwards a noun ; and a 
strange one it is. Since about is an adverb, modifying twenty, it seems to us that it would 
be allowable to call upwards of an. adverbial phrase modifying twenty. — See Above. 

Very. " The very man " ; adj. " Very strange " ; adv. 
Weigh. " To weigh [lift] anchor"; v. tr. "It weighs a pound"; Rule 
IV or VI. " To weigh a hog " ; Rule IV. Weigh is as much transi- 
tive as cost ; but the more obvious object of weigh has rather pushed the 
other under Rule VI. 
Well. " A deep well " ; noun. " He is well " ; adj. " Well advanced inT 

years " ; adv. " We/!, I don't know what to do " ; independent adv. 
What ; Compound relative pronoun. " Take what I offer." 
Interrogative pronoun. " What ails you ? " 
Responsive pronoun . "I know what ails you." 
Adjective. " What news from Genoa ? " [I succeeded." 

Adverb. "What [somewhat] with entreaty, what with threatening, 
Interjection. " What ! take my money, and my life too ? " 
The regular expression for the relative what seems to have been that what; 
for the first cousin to this expression, "das was," is still alive in the Ger- 
man language. The disagreeable monotony of sound, in the two words that 
what, seems to have caused the rejection of one. "Eschewe that evil is." — 
Gower. Here the what is dropped ; but, in the course of time, what gained 
the supremacy, and now rules in place of both words. Gradually, what 
also assumed the function of a plural. 

" He demands as a favor what the former requires as a debt." What is the object of 
demands and requires ,• and favor and debt are put in apposition. " Whatsoever you 
find, take it." Pleonastic ; the antecedent of whatsoever is in apposition with it. u To 
others do — the law is not severe — what to thyself thou wishest to be done." The ante- 
cedent part of what is governed by do, and ivishes governs the relative part in connec- 
tion with the infinitive. " Is it possible that he should know what he is, and be what he 
is ? " Know governs the clause after it ; and what is responsive, agreeing in case with 
he, according to Rule VII. " I tell thee what, corporal *, I could tear her." That is, I 
tell thee what I think or feel. What if he should sue you ? " i. e., what would you 
do ? " What if there is an old dormant law, nobody will enforce it " ; i. e., what avails 
it. " What though no real voice nor sound," etc. ; conj. phr., for it seems to have be- 
come a sort of poetic although. " What ho / warder" 5 interj. " For all men whatso- 
ever " ; adj. j or supply they are, and apply Rule VII. — See There and Do. 



226 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

When. « When was it ? "interrog. adv. " Come when you can " ; conj. adr. 
" Since when was it?" noun. So, where. 
Though it is customary to teach that relative pronouns and § conjunctive » adverbs connect 
clauses, vet wort words of this kind allow the clauses to which they be ong to be con- 
dieted into infinitive phrases , and then the chief syntax rests sometimes on t he * elat ire 
word, and sometimes on the infinitive. "1 know how to do it"; Note IV , to Jo 
Sr the object of know, and modified by how. So, » I^™V«**£ % «*'£« J 
"I know what to do." "These precious minstrels could find no it »m tn wA»cA «o 
warble"; "He has no money with which to begin the business"; the infinitives 
father depen? on the preceding nouns or predicates, and "f^™ 
•'Tell me Wen to come, and where to meet you » ; Note IV, but he infim tive rather 
depends on the adverb. So, " The Son of man hath not where to Lay his head. In the 
S Two sentences, the nouns time and place can be supplied 5 and in the last one it 
would be hardly improper to parse where simply as a noun. 
Whereby, wherewith, whereon, whence, imply each a relative pronoun ; and 

they arc therefore generally conjunctive adverbs. 
Which. "The table on which I write"; rel. pron. "Which is he?" 
interrog. pron. " Which book 1 " adj. " I know not which it is " J "I 
know not which to choose " ; responsive pronoun. 
« Can you tell which is which ? " « He does not know what is what ? " "We shall 
soon see who is who." This idiom is a very curious knurl in language. The first word 
seems to be a common interrogative or responsive pronoun, and the subject of the ; verb • , 
the word after the verb is a kind of indefinite pronoun, altogether peculiar. Which is 
which ? » seems to be equivalent to " Which is the right one ? 

"Has earth a clod its Maker meant should not be trod by man, erect and free 

Supply which, and make meant govern the whole clause, which should not be trod, etc. 

Who. ''The man whp" ; rel. pron. " Who can tell who he is ? " first 

who, interrog. pron. ; second who, responsive, or indirect interrogative. 

• "To any one whensoever"; rel. pron., in apposition; analogous to 

" The man himself" — See end of What . ^ [adv. 

W T hy. " Why go ? " interrog. adv. " The reason why he went" ; conj. 

Wit. " They are, to wit," etc. ; adv. phr. " These men, to wit," etc. ; conj. 

Worse. " To be worse " ; adj. " To do worse " ; adv. " For worse " ; noun. 

Would. " I would go " ; auxiliary verb. " I would I were out of the 

difficulty"; prill, v. " Would God it were done!" prin. v. ; God, 

subject/ The meaning seems to be, " that God wished [subjunctive] 

it done!" implying that it would then be instantly done. But it is 

customary to supply /, and to govern God by to. 

Worth. " Slow rises worth by poverty depressed " ; noun. " Mv knife 

is worth a dollar," t. e. } equal in value to; adj.; dollar, Rule VI. 

" More worth to men, more joyous to themselves." Young. " Woe 

worth the day " ; verb ; old imperative of the verb be; akin to were, or 
derived from this branch. 
English syntax would sustain a Rule of this kind : "Verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, 
that have absorbed the meaning of to or for, may govern the same case." Like, ivort\ 
and verbs of giving, would come under this Rule. 

Yet | conj. " Yet, though destruction sweep these lovely plains, 

adv. "Rise, fellow-men, our country yet remains ! " — Campbell. 
» Yet a few days, and thee the all-beholding sun shall see no more." — Bryant. One 
writer supplies passing ; but the expression is fully in the idiom of the German language *, 
and in this fehe sense is, " After a few days yet," etc., yet being an adverb that raodiues 
the phrase. Yet, Note VII j years, Rule VI. 
Yonder. " Yonder church " ; adj. " He lives yonder " ; adv. 



I 




PART IV. 

WORDS LOGICALLY COMBINE!*. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

*' .A. lXLigiity maze! tout not without a plan." 

Analysis is the resolving of a whole into its parts. 
Synthesis is the combining of parts into a whole. 

571 • Analysis, in grammar, is the resolving of a sen- 
tence into its principal and subordinate parts. 

Analysis is simply graded syntax ; and the most important principal parts 
are subjects and predicates. Analysis treats of thought and its elements ; 
parsing treats of words and of those properties which sometimes cause 
changes in the forms of words. 

572, Parsing is the resolving of a sentence into its 

parts of speech, and mentioning their properties and 

syntax. 

DISCOURSE. 

573. Discourse is any train of thought embodied in 
language ; and it may be, — 

1. Description, which depends chiefly on placs. 

Description is an account of persons, places, and things. 

2. Narration, which depends chiefly on time. 

Narration is a rehearsal of events. 

3. Science or Philosophy, which aims to unfold the 
nature or plan of things; 

On this division is based didactic literature, which inculcates moral truth. 

4. Illustration, which is any foreign matter introduced 
for the sake of making the speaker's meaning more intel- 
ligible, or impressive. 

Il/ustration is generally rhetorical matter, comprised under the head of Rhetorical 
Figure?. 



228 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Any one of the first three kinds may predominate in a piece of 
composition ; but the four are frequently combined and mixed. 

574. Discourse, or Literature, is usually divided into 

prose and poetry. 

575« The chief divisions of prose are science, philoso- 
phy, history, travels, novels, essays, addresses, critiques, 
and letters. 

576. The chief divisions of poetry are epic poetry, 
dramatic poetry, lyric poetry, satires, epistles, epigrams, 
and epitaphs. 

Dramatic poetry is divided into tragedies and comedies ; 
and lyric poetry is divided into odes, songs, and sonnets. 

PARAGRAPHS. 

577» The division of his discourse into volumes, books, 
parts, cantos, verses, chapters, sections, paragraphs, and 
sentences, is left chiefly to every writers own taste and 
judgment. 

578. All discourse can usually be divided into para- 
graphs. 

It is generally more convenient to divide poetry into stanzas. 

579. A Paragraph is a sentence, or a combination of 
sentences, distinguished by a break and a new beginning ; 
and it shotild comprise all that relates to a distinct part of 
the subject. It may also serve to make prominent an im- 
portant thought, or to give a needed rest. 

Most writers seem to know but little of the nice uses of the paragraph ; and 
they abuse it even more than they abuse capital letters and punctuation- 
marks. That acute writer, Dean Swift, must have well understood the em- 
phasizing force of the paragraph and the dash, .when he wrote, — 
" All modern trash is 
Set forth with numerous breaks and dashes. 11 



580. All paragraphs can be divided into sentences. 



1 



ANALYSIS. 229 

SENTENCES. 

581. A Sentence is a thought expressed by a proposi- 
tion, or a union of propositions, followed by a full pause. 

Sometimes a sentence consists merely of a word or phrase, that is equivalent, however, 
to a proposition ; as, " And still her former self lay there, unaltered in change. Yes. The 
old fireside had smiled on that same sweet face," etc. — Dickens (on the Heath ot llttle 
Is T ell). Sometimes, thrush very seldom, a complete sentence reaches beyond a full pause. 
(See a piece called "The Forgiven Debt," by L. M. Sargent.) 

582. A Proposition is a subject combined with its 
predicate. 

583. A Clause is a proposition that makes but a part 

of a sentence. 

Ex. — " The morning was pure and sunny, | the fields were white 
with daisies, | and bees hummed about every bank." — Irving. 

The foregoing expression is a sentence, consisting of three clauses. 

581. A clause or sentence is, — 

1. Declarative, when it expresses a declaration. 
Ex. — John rides that wild horse. 

2. Interrogative, when it asks a question. 
Ex. — Does John ride that wild horse ? 

3. Imperative, when it expresses command, entreaty, 
or permission. 

Ex. — John, ride that wild horse. 

4. Exclamatory, when it expresses an exclamation. 

Ex. — Does John ride that wild horse ! 

An exclamatory clause or sentence is simply a declarative, an interrogative, 
or an imperative one, uttered chiefly to express the emotion of the speaker- 

585. Any of the foregoing modes of predicating may- 
be either affirmative or negative. 

586. Sometimes a sentence is a composite of clauses 

differently predicated. 

Ex. — " The earth is green again; 

But where are they who strove upon this field ? " 
This is a compound sentence, consisting of a declarative and an interrogative clause. 



230 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ' 

587» Sentences are divided into three classes ; simple, 
complex, and compound. 

Before we explain these classes, it will be necessary to show the chief rela* 
rions of words in sentences, and to investigate the elements of sentences. 

THE THREE RELATIONS. 

588. Almost the whole of what is usually called Anal- 
ysis, is based simply on three common relations of syntax, 
generalized and extended. 

589, These are the predicate relation, the adjective 
relation, and the adverbial relation. 

Predicate Relation. 

1. Trees | grow. 
2. Young trees | grow rapidly. 
3. The young trees along the river | have grown rapidly this year. 
Observe that the relation between trees and grow, in the first ex- 
ample, is the common syntax relation between nominative and verb. 
In analysis, we simply extend this relation over the entire phrase, so as 
to take in the whole sense. Hence, while trees remains the nominative 
in parsing, in analysis we make trees, young trees, and the young trees 
along the river, respectively the subjects. So, while grow remains the 
verb in parsing, in analysis we make grow, grow rapidly, have grown 
rapidly this year, respectively the predicates. 

Adjective Relation. Adverbial Relation* 

Black horses. They build wonderfully. 

TJiese horses. They build ships. 

The horses. They build now. 

John's horses. They build everywhere. 

Horses, the property of John. They build concealed. 

Horses owned by John. They build to be remembered. 

Horses to be sold. They build in great splendor. 

Horses of strength and speed. They build while labor is cheap. 

Horses of which he boasts. They build that they may have homes, 

. Horses that have been rode. They build because they are rich. 

Observe that not merely the adjectives black and these tell what 
or which horses are meant, but that also the article the, the possessive 






ANALYSIS. 231 

John's^ the appositive, the participle, the infinitive, the adjunct, and 
the relative clause, — indeed, all the different words, phrases, and 
clauses, joined to horses, — tell what or which horses are meant. The 
adjective sense is thus extended over kindred meanings and over 
phrases and clauses. 

Observe that the adverb wonderfully, and the object ship, which 
limit build, though in very different ways, still both show what kind 
of building is meant ; namely, wonderful building and ship-building. 

Observe also that all the different words, phrases, and clauses, joined 
to build, show how, when, where, why, or as to what the building is 
done, — that is, they are used in the sense of adverbs ; and the ad- 
verbial sense is thus extended over kindred meanings and over 
phrases and clauses. 



THE ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES. 

590. The Elements of sentences are words, phrases, 
and clauses. 

591 # All sentences can be resolved into propositions or 
clauses. 

592* Sometimes a sentence has, besides, an indepen- 
dent word or phrase. 

Ex. — No, gentlemen of the jury ; this is not law. 

593, All the foregoing parts of sentences can be divided 
into six classes of elements : — # 

Two Principal Parts, or Elements. 
Two Modifiers, or Modifying Elements. 
A Connecting Element, or Connectives. 
An Independent Element. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

5Mo Every proposition must have at least two princi- 
pal parts ; a subject-nominative and a predicate-verb. 



232 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

595. The Subject-Nominative is a noun, a pronoun, 
or an equivalent expression, that is the nominative to the 
verb. 

598. The Predicate -Verb is the finite verb which 
predicates an act or state of the subject. 

Ex. — Full many a flower \ is born to blush unseen. 

597. Every proposition must consist of a subject and a 

predicate. 

598. A Subject is a word, phrase, or clause, denoting 
that of which something- is predicated. 

599. The Predicate is the word or phrase denoting 
what is said of the subject,* 

Ex. — Bells | tolled. 

Full many a flower | is born to blush unseen. 
That our life resembles a journey, | has often been observed. 

600. Every subject and every predicate is either simple 
or compound. 

601. A subject is simple, when it has but one subject- 
nominative to the same verb. 

602. A subject is compound, when it has two or more 
subject-nominatives to the same verb. 

60S.* A predicate is simple, when it has but one predi- 
cate-verb belonging to the same subject. 

604. A predicate is compound, when it has two or more 
predicate-verbs belonging to the same subject. 
Ex. — Roses | fade. 

Roses and lilies | bloom and fade. 
Days, months, years, and ages, | shall circle away» 
Full many a flower | is born to blush unseen, 
And waste its sweetness on the desert air. 

• * The subject is what remains after the predicate' is removed ; the predicate is what re- 
mains after the subject is removed. The subject, or the entire subject, is the subject- 
nominative with all its modifiers ; the predicate, or the entire predicate, is the predicate- 
verb with all its modifiers. When the subject or the predicate consists of two or more 
words, the teacher may let the pupil call it the entire subject, the entire predicate ; 
Bimply In «jlve the expression a little more fullness or f<.vce. 






ANALYSIS. 233 

The subject-nominative is sometimes called the grammatical subject, and 
the predicate-verb the grammatical predicate ; the entire subject is sometimes 
called the logical subject, and the entire predicate the logical predicate. The 
predicate-verb be, or any other neuter verb, is sometimes called the copula ; 
and the adjective, noun, or kindred expression, which follows it, is some- 
times called the attribute. 

The word subject, in grammar, is sometimes applied to the entire expression to which 
a predicate refers, sometimes to the nominative only, and sometimes to a person or thing: 
the word object is sometimes applied to a governed word or expression, and sometimes to 
a person or thing. 

j Mention the subjects, the predicates, the subject-nominatives, the predicate- 
verbs ; and tell whether the subjects and predicates are simple or compound ; — 

Deep rivers | flow in silent majesty. 
Rome | was not built in one day.- 
A thing of beauty is a joy forever* , 
_The summer breeze .parts the deep mazes of the forest shades. 
There is a mourner o'er the humblest grave. 
To meet danger boldly is better than to wait for it. 
Our feelings and actions are evidently according to our belief. 

The dipping paddle echoes far, 

And flashes in the moonlight gleam. 

When the subject or the predicate is a long or mixed phrase, it may be bet- 
ter to mention first the subject-nominative or predicate-verb, and then the 
modifiers that make with it the entire subject or predicate. 

MODIFIERS. 

605. A Modifier is a dependent word, phrase, or 
clause, added to some other word or expression, to limit 
or vary the meaning. 

Ex. — The paths of glory lead but to the grave. 

The and of glory are modifier ; because they cease to make sense when the word 
paths is removed, and they serve to show what paths are meant. 

- A modifier generally specifies, limits, explains, or describes. 

606. There are two kinds of modifiers ; adjective and 
adverbial. 

607. An Adjective Modifier is one that modifies a 
noun or pronoun, or that belongs to it or depends on it. 

" An adjective modifier generally describes some person or thing. 
Ex. — " Solomon's Temple." What temple ? 

" David, the king and psalmist" What David ? 



234 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



% 



" The land of palms." What land ? 
" A hill crowned with majestic trees" What kind of hill ? 
" A proposition to sell the farm" What proposition ? - 
" The store which is on the corner." What store ? 

Omit the words land and hill, and you can see at once that the remaining 
words cease to make sense ; therefore land and hill are principal words, and 
the others depend on them. To ascertain which word can not be omitted 
without destroying the phrase or sentence, or the sense, will generally be the 
easiest way in which the pupil can find the principal word and its modifiers. 

It is very difficult to define modifiers in such a way as to make the definition suffi- 
ciently comprehensive, and at the same time forcible and exact. Our definition of adjec- 
tive modifiers would include predicates ; — and, in truth, all predicates are modifiers or 
attributes of their subjects ; — but the definition which we have given of predicates, 
will enable the pupil to distinguish them from modifiers. 

608« A Noun or Pronoun may be modified, — 

1. By an Article. " A servant brought the horse." 

2. By an Adjective. " A beautiful rose." " Money enough" 

3. By a Possessive. "John's horse." "My slate." 

4. By an Appositive. " John the saddler. " " The poet Milton." 
K By a Participle. " Fields ploughed" " Birds singing." 

By an Infinitive. " Horses to be fed." " A house to let." 

Sometimes also an adverb modifies a substantive, or must be taken with 
it in analysis. — See § 527. 

f U By an Adjunct- " A bunch of fresh flowers." 

2. By an Appositive Phrase. " Greece, the cradle of arts." 

3*( By a Participial Phrase. " Barns, filled with hay and grain." 

4. By an Infinitive Phrase. " Ties never to be thus broken" 

5. By an Adjective Phrase. " Days, short and very cold." 
Sometimes, though very seldom, a substantive is modified by an absolute 

phrase that is used for a relative clause. 

1. By a Relative Clause. " The winds which bring perfume." 

2, By an Appositive Clause. " It was lucky that I found it." 
3J By an Adverbial Clause. " The place where he fell" 

: 4. By a Conjunctive Clause. "A request that you will come" 



Phrases, 



Clauses. 



Exercises. 

Mention tfie nouns and pronouns, and by what they are limited or modified: — 
A house. Faithful friends. The river Hudson. 

An orange. Lurking Indiaus. Mary the cook. 



ANALYSIS. 



255 



The ship. 
Warm weather. 
Rainy weather. 
Lar^e rooms. 



Twenty-five dollars. 
California bears. 
Virtue's reward. 
Our country's welfare. 



They themselves. 
Time misspent. 
I, having escaped. 
Visitors much delighted. 



The President's proclamation, 
A path through the woods. 
An order to retreat. 
Scouts to watch the enemy. 
Indians that lurk near. 
Lakes fringed with cedars. 



The songs of birds. 
. A man without money. 
A watch to be repaired. 
Indians lurking near. 
The sun's bright beams. 
Two pillars of marble. 



The armaments which thunder-strike the wails of rock-built cities. 

6*9. An Adverbial Modifier is one that modifies a 

verb, an adjective, or an adverb ; or that belongs to it or 

depends on it. 

An adverbial modifier generally specifies the kind, limits the action, adds 
a circumstance, or expresses degree. — See below. 

A modified verb is a finite verb, an infinitive, or a participle. 

By adverbial modifier we mean whatever is added to a verb to 
make with it a predicate ; or whatever modifies an adjective, an ad- 
verb, a participle, or an infinitive. A comprehensive term is needed ; 
so that we are compelled either to enlarge the meaning of adverbial, 
or to coin a new; expression. Perhaps it would be better to call these 
modifi ers predicate modifiers, because they are mostly used in making 
predicates ; and all adjective modifiers substantive modifiers, because 
they modify substantives. 

Predicate or Adverbial Modifiers. 
Oil, A Verb nlay be modified, — - 
r 1. By an Object. " Men build houses. 1 '' 

2. By a Predicate Substantive. " He became a farmer." 

3. By a Predicate Adjective. " The milk turned sour" 
Words, ] 4. By an Adverb. " The horse ran fast/ 1 

5. By a Participle. " The ball went whizzing." 

6. By an Infinitive. " I have come to be instructed." 

" James is idle." — Owing to a slight radical difference in the modes of 
classifying, there is sometimes an apparent incongruity between Parsing and 
Analysis. Thus, in parsing, idle is referred to James, because James de- 
notes the object to which the quality belongs j but, in analysing, it is referred 
fco is, because it makes "with is the predicate. 

11 



236 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

' 1. By an Adjunct. " Apples grow on trees." 
2. By an Objective Phrase. " He knew when to sell." 
3f By an Explanatory Phrase. " To be good is to be happy." 
4. By an Adverbial Phrase. 



5. By a Participial Phrase. 

6. By an Infinitive Phrase. 

7. By an Absolute Phrase. 



u He will come by and by." 
" He fell, grasping his sword." 
" He fell to rise no more." 
" He being sick, I returned." 



Clauses. 



A modifying phrase that begins with an adverb, as well as a phrase that 
has the sense of an adverb, is sometimes best called an adverbial phrase. 

f 1. By an Objective Clause. " I believe that he is honest." 

2. By an Explanatory Clause. " My wish is, that you remain." 

3. By an Adverbial Clause. " Study while you are young." 

4. By a Conjunctive Clause. " I am convinced that you are right." 



611. An Adjective or an Adverb can have the same 
modifiers as a verb, except those modifiers which are sub- 
stantive or adjective. 

Modifiers of adjectives or adverbs generally express degree or circum- 
stance. 

Exercises. 

Mention the finite verbs., the infinitives, and the participles ; and by what 
they are limited or modified: — 

Cast not pearls before swine. 
Columbus did not become disheartened. 
I fully intended to go. 
Concealing himself in a thicket. 
Act wisely that you may win. 
The horse has become lame. 
To write neatly and rapidly. 



Exercises produce health. 

He sold a variety of goods. 

She thinks he is rich. 

Time is money. 

He is considered an honest man. 

She was there yesterday. 

To write with neatness. 

Nature from the storm shines out afresh. 

I believe he will succeed when he makes the effort. 

The sun having set, we returned to the camp, and made a fire. 

The adjectives and the adverbs, and by what they are limited or modified :- 

Uncommonly beautiful. How dear to my heart. 

It is very badly done. 



Too beautiful to last. 
Rich in knowledge. 



She studies most diligently. 






ANALYSIS. 237 

General Remarks. 

612. A modified word may have two or more modifiers at 
the same time. 

613. A word or part that modifies another, may itself be 
modified. 

Ex. — " The boy who studied most diligently, gained the prize." 
Boy is modified by the article the and the relative clause who studied, most diligently; 
diligently modifies studied, and is itself modified by most. 
•Articles, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections, are never modified. 

For convenience, all modifiers of subject-nominatives and predicate-verbs 
may be called primary modifiers ; and all modifiers of these may be called 
secondary modifiers. 

614. A modified word may be called principal, in regard to 
that which modifies it. 

615* An infinitive, used as a noun, takes only the modifiers 
of a verb. 

616. A participial noun takes the modifiers of either a verb 
or a noun. 

617. An adverbial modifier sometimes modifies a whole 
phrase or clause, rather than some word in it. 

For examples, see Note VII, p. 196 j see also pp. 172 and 210. 

618. Modify we use as the most comprehensive word; but 
limit, explain, and describe can also be used, especially when 
more appropriate or expressive. 

It is said that modifiers always limit. This is not true. "I study" 5 " I do not 
study." Not modifies or reverses do study, but does not limit it. 

619. The predicate-verb be, when followed by an adjective, 
a noun, or a kindred expression, is simply combined with it, 
rather than modified by it ; and the latter term can generally 
be called an attribute of the subject. 

It is an attribute when it describes ; it is simply an explanatory or identi- 
fying term when it explains or identifies. " Thou art a man " ; attribute. 
u Thou art the man " ; identity. " It was the wind "; wind is no attribute 
of it. 

All other neuter or intransitive verbs, and also passive verbs, can be 
bfc treated in the same way as the verb be ; though it is seldom necessary 
to do so, because the word modify can generally be applied to them. 



238 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

620 • All adverbial modifiers can be divided into three 
classes : — 

1. Objective Elements ; objects, — words, phrases, and clauses. 

2. Attributive Elements ; predicate adjectives or substantives, — words, 

phrases, and clauses. 

3. Adverbial Elements 5 adverbs, adjuncts, etc., — words, phrases, and 

clauses. 

Though this classification is obvious and instructive in the gross, in practical detail it 
can never be carried far without endless perplexity : because participles, infinitives, and 
clauses, belong to all these classes 5 adjuncts belong to at least two •, and all these parts 
range and intertwist through the classes by many and almost imperceptible shades of dif- 
ference. To a certain extent, the classification can be made profitable in schools. 

^CONNECTIVES. ( ^ 

621 • The Connectives are the conjunctions, the prep- 
ositions, the relative pronouns, the responsive pronouns, 
and the conjunctive adverbs. 

See pp. 75, 181, 182, 185. 

622« A connective that is not a conjunction, performs 
also the office of the part of speech to which it belongs. 

Connectives may consist of words or phrases. 

Also the clauses "that w" and "that is to say" are sometimes used simply as co- 
ordinate conjunctions. Such phrases as, the moment that, the instant that, as far as, 
as soon as, etc., are frequently used in the sense of conjunctive adverbs. 

Connectives are generally used singly, but sometimes in pairs. 

Connectives are generally expressed, but sometimes they are 
omitted. 

Parts are sometimes connected by simple succession or mere de- 
pendence. 

Complex sentences have most connectives ; and the parts of compound sentences are 
the ones most frequently connected by simple succession. 

INDEPENDENT ELEMENT. 
623. An Independent Element may be, — 

1. An interjection. 

2. An adverb. 

3. An independent nominative, or a phrase with such 
a nominative. 



ANALYSIS. 2o9 

Ex. — 0, yes, my Lord ; the rallying hosts advance. 

Sometimes an independent substantive may be taken as a part of a logical subject* 
Sometimes an independent substantive has a relative clause joined to it, aud the whole 
expression then forms an independent propositional phrase. See Gray's Ode to Adversity. 

4. Occasionally an absolute, a participial, an infinitive, 
or a prepositional phrase. 

See Note V and Rule II. 

Sometimes a sentence has a loose participial, infinitive, absolute, or prep 
ositional phrase, which is still, however, so related to the proposition that 
it can generally be taken as a part of the subject or the predicate. Such 
a phrase is sometimes grammatically independent, or does not modify the 
matter contained in the proposition, when it still modifies the mode of as- 
sertion, or shows as to what, or under what restriction, the statement is 
made. The phrase then modifies the proposition in the sense of a modal 
adverb. " Generally speaking " = probably ; " Upon the whole " = " hence, 
probably.' 1 (See p. 176.) But when such a phrase has no perceptible con- 
nection with the remaining words, it must be called independent. 

624. An independent element may accompany any 
kind of sentence ; and sometimes it stands by itself, like 
a sentence. 

, PHRASES AND CLAUSES. 

625. A phrase or clause is generally named from its leading 
or introducing word, from its principal word, from its form, or 
from its use in the sentence. 

The different systems of grammar have run the nomenclature and distinctions of phrase3 
and clauses into such a maze, that no scientific classification can now be made without 
revolution and a new nomenclature. The following seems to us the best classification that 
can be made without a radical change. 

626. In its form, a phrase may be, — 

1. Simple. " On the ground." " To be there." " A large tree." 

2. Complex. "At the close of the day." One phrase modifying another. 

3. Compound. " At night and in the morning." Two co-ordinate 

phrases joined. 

4. Propositional, or Clausal. " This depends on who the commis- 

sioners are." " Between him and the man whom he had employed/ 7 
A phrase, comprising a clause. 
5* Mixed. See the beginning of Paradise Lost, down to the word sing. 



240 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 






627. In its grammatical nature, a phrase may be substan- 
tive, — -nominative, possessive, objective, appositive; adjective; 
participial ; infinitive ; prepositional (the adjunct) ; adverbial ; 
absolute ; independent ; idiomatic. 

For examples of phrases and clauses, see pp. 234, 235, and 236. 

628. In its logical nature, a phrase is substantive, adjective, 
adverbial, or independent. 

629* In its form, a clause is, — 

1. Simple, when it has but one predicate. 

2. Complex, when it comprises a principal clause with a dependent clause. 

3. Compound, when it comprises two co-ordinate clauses. 

A proposition is either simple or complex. A complex proposition or 
clause is one that has an incorporated clause, or a clause that is folded in. 

A combination of two or more clauses that makes but a part of a sen- 
tence, is sometimes called a member; but the term complex or compound 
clause is probably more convenient. 

63©« In its grammatical nature, a clause may be substantive, 
— nominative, objective, appositive, or explanatory ; relative ; 
adverbial ; conjunctive. 

To avoid the ambiguity of the word adverbial, it would be well to call clauses that be- 
gin with conjunctive adverbs, conjunctive. 

631. In its logical nature, a clause is substantive, adjective, 
or adverbial. 

632. By a farther remove, a clause may be considered, — 

Independent ; when it depends on no other clause. And then it is prin* 
cipal, when another clause depends on it or is incorporated into it. 

Dependent, or subordinate 5 when ft depends on some word or phrase. 

Co-ordinate 5 when it is a companion, of equal rank, to some other inde- 
pendent or dependent clause. 

SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

633. A Simple Sentence is a sentence that has but 
one proposition. 

I f . may have, besides, an independent word or phrase. 
The subject of a simple sentence has no clause. 
The predicate of a simple sentence has no clause. 

634. The core of syntax, in all sentences, is predication. 



ANALYSIS. 241 

1. Simplest Combination of Subject and Predicate. 

Soldiers light. Dogs bark. Time flies. Wolves howl. Doves 
coo. Jewels glitter. Sin degrades. Bees were humming. Mary 
was chosen. We shall return. Clouds are gathering. 

Analysis. — This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is soldiers, 
and the predicate is Jight. 

2. Object added to the Predicate-Verb. 

Dogs bite strangers. Wolves catch lambs. Lightning strikes 

trees. Misers love gold. Merchants sell goods. Horses draw 

carriages. Wealth produces pride. I shall see him. 

Analysis. — This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is dogs. 
The entire predicate is bite strangers. The predicate-verb is bite, which is 
limited by its object dogs. 

3. Article or Adjective added to the Subject or the Object. 

The vessel was wrecked. John found a knife. Leaves cover 

the ground. Sweet music rose. She wrote a good composition. 

Tall and beautiful poplars fringe the river. 

Analysis. — This is a simple declarative sentence. The entire subject is 
the vessel; the subject-nominative is vessel, which is modified by the article 
the. Was wrecked is the predicate. 

4. Adjective or Nominative added to the Predicate- Verb. 

Lead is heavy. Most people are ambitious. A bad com* 

panion is dangerous. The wind blew cold. Flies are insects. 

The rose is a famous floioer. It was you. 

Analysis. — This is a simple declarative sentence. Lead is the subject. 
7s heavy is the predicate. ■ Is is the predicate-verb; and it is combined with. 
heavy, an attribute of the subject, Flies are insects, is a simple declarative 
sentence. Flies is the subject, are insects is the predicate. Are is the predi- 
cate-verb; and it is combined with insects^ an attribute of the subject. 

5. Adverb added to the Predicate-Verb. 

John comes frequently. Good pupils study diligently. The 
procession moved slowly. The eagle flew round and upwards. 
Flowers are peeping out | everywhere. I was there. 

6. Adjunct added to the Predicate- Verb. 

The mountain is clothed with evergreens. The wind glided 
over the grass. Our troubles are aggravated by imaginary evils. 
My cousin went to your house, | at noon, \ in a carriage. 



242 ENGLISH ORAMMAB. 

Analysis. — This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject ig tht 
mountain; the subject-nominative is mountain, which is modified by the ar- 
ticle the. Is cloth td with evergreens is the predicate; is clothed is the predi- 
cate-verb, which is modified by the adjunct with evergreens, 

7. Adjunct added to the Subject or the Object. 

A wreath of rose-buds encircled her head. She brought a 

basket of fruit The old oak is loaded with a flock \ of singing 

blackbirds. The path through the woods is cool and pleasant. 

Analysis. — This is a simple declarative sentence. The entire subject is 
a wreath of rose-buds j the subject-nominative is wreath, which is modified by 
the article a and the adjunct of rose-buds. Encircled her head is the entire 
predicate; encircled is the predicate-verb, which is modified by the object 
head, and head is modified by the possessive her. 

S» Possessive or Appositive added to Subject or Object. 

My hat is new. Mary's eyes are blue. Our | neighbor's bees 
left their hive. Rogers the poet was a banker. Lake Erie is a 
beautiful sheet of water. We visited Rome, the capital of Italy. 



Simple Sentences with Adjuncts. 

Twilight is weeping o'er the pensive rose. 

The world is bright before thee. 

The hatred of brothers is the hatred of devils. 

The violet has mourned above their graves \ a hundred years. 

A hundred years is an abridged adjunct, modifying mourned. 

In darkness dissolves the gay frost-work of bliss. 

Rhetorically arranged-, grammatically arranged, it would be, The gay frost* 
work of bliss dissolves in darkness. 

IAke the leaves \ of the forest they all passed away. 

Like the leaves of the forest is an adverbial adjunct, modifying passed Name 
phrases beginning with like, near, or worth, from the leading word. Say that 

verbs of giving are modified by , the direct object; and by , the in^ 

direct object. 

Tell me the story. I gave him soue wholesome advice. 

I insist on sending | him | the horse immediately. 

None knew thee but to love thee. 

Upon the whole, I am pleased with the terms. 

Looking upon the whole, etc. But it is probably better to say, that upon the 
whole modifies am phased, in the sense of a modal adverb. (See p. 176.) 






ANALYSIS. 243 

Simple Sentences with Participial or Absolute Phrases* 

The poor fellow, baffled so often, became at last disheartened. 

I saw him returning home. They fled, pursued by our cavalry. 

The money being furnished, he purchased the estate. 

The absolute phrase relates to purchased, and modifies it. 

She sits inclining forward as to speak, \ 

Her lips half open, and her finger up. — Rogers. 

The compound absolute phrase tells how she sits. Sometimes such phrases 
are independent. Supply being. 

Meanwhile the neighboring fields, trampled and beaten dozen, 

become barren and dry, affording nothing bzit clozids of dust. 

That is, — " and afford," etc. This last participial phrase relates to fields, 
in the sense of a partial predicate ) for it modifies neither the subject nor the 
predicate. Sometimes a participial or an infinitive phrase is almost a predi- 
cate or clause. 

Simple Sentences with Infinitive Phrases. 

I went to the river to find a skiff. 

A path to guide us could not be found. 

To protect persons and property is the duty of government. 

It is the duty of government to protect persons and property. 

The best way to thrive is to keep ozit of debt. 

She has learned to do nothing but | dress and visit. 

Surely we are not destined to live always in war and, discord. 

He is very well able to bear the loss. 

The rain makes the grass grozv rapidly. 

The grass grow rapidly is the entire object of makes, and grass is the gram- 
matical object. Such infinitive phrases are almost clauses, and such sen- 
tences are nearly complex; but they are still simple sentences. 

I ordered him to be brought. Let no one pass by. 

To speak plainly, he was a pedant puffed up with conceits. 

The last infinitive phrase is grammatically independent, but logically it 
modifies the following proposition in the sense of a modal adverb. Page 176. 

Simple Sentences with Compound Subjects. 

There health and plenty cheered the laboring swain. 

Formula. — A simple sentence with a compound subject; the subject- 
nominatives are , connected by , and modified by ■ . 

Around the post hung helmets, swords, and spears- 



244 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The breezy call of incense-breathing Morn, 

The swallow twittering from the straw-built shed, 

The cock's shrill clarion, or the echoing horn, 
No more shall rouse them from their lowly bed. 

Simple Sentences with Compound Predicates. 

They softly lie, and sweetly sleep, low in the ground. 
He tried each art, reproved each dull delay, 
Allured to brighter worlds, and led the way. 
Here and there a lark, scared from his feeding-place in the 
grass, soars up, bubbling forth his melody in globules of silvery 
sound, and settles upon some tall tree, and waves his wings, and 
sings to the swaying twigs. 

Simple Sentences with Compound Modifiers* 

The water ran | around the bridge and over the bridge. 
A proverb is the wit of one and the wisdom of many. 
Let I not Ambition mock their useful toil, 

Their homely joys, and destiny obscure ; 
Nor Grandeur hear, with a disdainful smile, 

The short and simple annals of the poor. 

See, in Gray's Elegy, stanzas 16, 17, and 18 ; all of which make but one simple sentence. 

Simple Sentences with Independent Parts. 

"Why, T .o, my lord; he has not failed. 

But the daughter — alas! poor creature — she is accom- 
plished, and cannot do household work. 

Flag o£the brav r e! thy folds shall Hy 

The sign of hope and triumph high. — Drake. 

Ah ! then how sweetly clo.-ed those boyhood days ! 

The minutes parting one by one like rays. — Allston. 

f£r" In general, any part of all the foregoing simple sentences can be 
made compound, by adding similar words or phrases, and thus making a 
series; and any part can be made complex, by adding modifiers, which 'are 
generally different words or phrases. It is thus that long simple sentences 
are produced. 



ANALYSIS. 245 

2. COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

635. A Complex Sentence is a sentence that has but 
one independent or principal clause, with one or more 
dependent clauses. 

It is a sentence in which the parts are connected, at their widest or greatest 
joint, by a subordinate relation. 

There runs through discourse, more or less, a serial sense, 
and also a modified sense. The former gives us compound 
structure ; and the latter, complex structure. 

1. A sentence that consists of two clauses connected 
by a relative pronoun, is complex. 

2. A sentence that consists of two clauses connected 
by a conjunctive adverb, is complex. 

3. A sentence that consists of two clauses connected 
by a subordinate conjunction, is complex. 

4. A sentence that consists of two clauses, of which 
one is used in the sense of a noun, an adjective, or an 
adverb, is complex. 

This class includes the three classes before it ; and it is itself included in 
the general class, § 635. 

In stead of having but two clauses, a complex sentence may also have sev- 
eral distinct clauses, or else a cluster of clauses, depending thus on the prin- 
cipal clause, or incorporated into it; and it can also have two or more inde- 
pendent clauses, provided the dependent clause relates to them jointly. 

Almost every sentence must have at least one clause that is independent ; 
and its clauses may all be so. When a sentence has two or more independent 
clauses, it is generally compound. 

636. A subordinate clause may be used as a noun in 
any case except the possessive. 

Substantive Clauses, 
Nominative Clauses. 

That the soul is immortal, is believed by all nations. 

This is a complex declarative sentence, of which the subject is a subordi- 
nate or incorporated clause. That the soul is immortal, is the principal sub- 
ject ; and is believed by all nations is the principal predicate. Is believed is the 
predicate-verb ; and it is modified by the adjunct by all nations. That is the 
connective, showing the dependence of the subordinate clause on something 
else. The soul, of the dependent clause, is the subject, etc. 



246 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Why he did not go, is obvious. 

When JEneas landed in Italy, is not known. 

Whether he can finish the work, is doubtful. 

How an acorn becomes an oak, is a mystery. 

Where Warren fell, is not precisely known. 

By what means he succeeded, has never been explained. 

Can he hold his position f is the question. 

Appositive Explanatory Clauses. 

It is universally believed that the soul is immortal 

This is a complex declarative sentence, of which the dependent clause is in 
apposition with the subject. It, with the clause that the soul is immortal, is the 
entire principal subject. It is the subject-nominative, which is modified by 
the explanatory clause. Is universally believed is the principal predicate; is 
believed is the predicate-verb, which is modified by the adverb universally. 
(Dispose of the dependent clause as heretofore.) 

It is obvious why he did not go. 

It is not known when JEneas landed in Italy. 

It is doubtful vjhether he can finish the work. 

It is mysterious how an acorn becomes an oak. 

It is not precisely known inhere Warren fell. 

It has never been ascertained by what means he succeeded. 

The question, Can he succeed? is now discussed in the papers. 

They did not seem to know the fact that all parties must obey the laws. 

One truth is clear : Whatever is, is right. 

Objective Clauses. 

All nations believe that the soul is immortal. 

This is a complex declarative sentence, of which the object is a dependent 
clause. All nations is the principal subject; nations is the subject-nominative, 
modified by all Believe thai the soul is immortal, is the entire principal predi- 
cate; believe is the predicate-verb, and it is limited by the objective clause 
that the soul is immortal 

You now see why he did not go. 

No one knows when JEneas landed in Italy. 

We doubt ivhether he can finish the work. 

I have been considering how an acorn becomes an oak. 

Our guide showed us.ivhere Warren is supposed to have fallen. 

I have never ascertained by what means he succeeded. 

He said, " How can I ever forget your favors to me?" 

The laws, he thought, should be more rigidly enforced. 

Teach me to know myself, and feel what others are. 



ANALYSIS. 247 

Predicate Explanatory Clauses. 

The universal belief is, that the soul is immortal. 

This is a complex declarative sentence, into which a dependent clause is 
fncorporated as a predicate-nominative, explanatory of the subject. (Analyze 
the principal subject.) Is that the soul is immortal, is the principal predicate; 
is is the predicate-verb, and it is combined with the predicate clause after it, 
which is explanatory of the subject. 

The only wonder is, that one head can contain it all. 

The cause of anxiety was, why lie did not write. 

One of the greatest mysteries is, how an acorn becomes an oak. 

The question is, " What is it best to do, under the circumstances f *' 

Adjective Clauses. 

The following sentences are complex because each has a 
clause that is used as an adjective, and is therefore dependent. 
The adjective clause is usually folded in or appended. 

Relative Clauses with Expressed Antecedents. 

The man icho escapes censure, is fortunate. 

This is a complex declarative sentence, with a dependent clause used as an 
adjective. The entire principal subject is, the man who escapes censure ; the 
subject-nominative is man, and it is modified by the article the and the rela- 
tive clause who escapes censure. Is fortunate is the principal predicate. Is 
is the predicate-verb; and it is combined with the predicate adjective fortu- 
nate, an attribute of the subject. Who joins the dependent clause to man, and 
is also the subject of the dependent clause. Escapes censure is the predicate j 
escapes is the predicate-verb, and it is modified by its object censure. 

He who is intelligent, will be intelligible. 

Mary has brought a beautiful rose, which grew in the garden. 

The man whose conscience is pure, needs fear no accusation. 

They met with such disasters as reduced them to poverty. 

Who that loves independence, would ever become a politician ? 

Yonder is the plain on which the battle was fought. 

The man on whose fidelity I relied most, was absent. 

He owned several ]ots, from the sale of which he became rich. 

There never yet were hearts or skies clouds might not wander through. 

That is, — " through which clouds might not wander." — See § 176. 

All questions, of whatever 10 nature they may be) are referred to the 
council. 
Ilere the preceding noun is not an antecedent \ but the clause, folded in, still describes it. 

All questions, whatever 1 they may be, are decided by the council. 



248 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Relative Clauses without Antecedents. 

Such an antecedent is, in reality, usually included or comprehended in the relative. 

What can not be prevented, must be endured. 

This i? ? complex declarative sentence, comprising a principal and an in- 
corporated clause. The entire principal subject is, what can not be prevented ; 
the subject-nominative is what, which is modified by the subordinate predicate, 
to which it is also the subject. (Now analyze the principal predicate, and 
then the subordinate predicate.) 

The foregoing is a simplified though somewhat anomalous mode of analyzing •, but it is 
logical, and can be easily explained to the pupil A double relative is modified by the 
rest of the subordinate clause, because this remainder represents a simple relative clause 
that is partly included in the double relative. — See p. 193. 

What is thoroughly understood, is easily described. 
Whoever plants trees, must love others besides himself. 
You can easily explain what you thoroughly understand. 

Can easily explain what, etc., is the entire principal predicate •, can explain is lim- 
ited by what you thoroughly understand as the entire object, and by what as the 
grammatical object, which is modified by the rest of the subordinate clause, because this 
represents a relative clause partly comprised in what. You is the subordinate subject j 
understand is the predicate-verb, which is modified by the adverb thoroughly and the 
relative part of what, 

Most politicians advocate whatever seems popular. 

By indolence he lost what ability he once had. 

Whomsoever the bishop appoints, the church will receive. 

I will not object to what is reasonable. 

To v)hat is reasonable is the entire adjunct •, to what is the grammatical adjunct. 
What is the grammatical object ; and it is modified by the subordinate predicate, to 
which it is also the g abject. 

You know what you can do, by what you have done. 

It is the t^ee which in / know not what far country grows. 

Adverbial and Conjunctive Clauses used as Adjectives. 

Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot 

O'er the grave where our hero was buried. — Wolfe. 

There are tim^s when the soul becomes tired of its earthly pilgrimage. 

A presentiment that he would be killed, made him sad. 

Where and when fire used in place of in which. 

What kind of presentiment ? Here the conjunctive clause is rather adjective than ap- 
pcsitive ', for it rather describes than identifies. 

Adverbial Clauses. 
The following sentences are complex because each has a 
clause that is used as an adverb, and is therefore dependent. 
The dependent clause generally precedes or follows the princi- 
pal clause. 



ANALYSIS. 249 

Adverbs of Time. 

When the sun rises, the birds begin to sing. 

This is a complex declarative sentence. The birds begin to sing, is the 
principal clause. (Analyze it.) When the sun rises, is the dependent clause, 
modifying the predicate of the principal clause in the sense of an adverb of 
time. When is a conjunctive adverb, connecting the two clauses. 

While the robbers were plundering, she set fire to the house. 

He locked the door after the horse was stolen. 

Before reinforcements could be sent, the battle was lost. 

He has become a citizen of this place since you were here. 

I will take care of your horse until you return. 

As we approached the top of the hill, we saw the Indians. 

As soon as my money teas gone, I no longer had friends. 

Then, when I am thy captive, talk of chains. 

Adverbs of Place. 

We sowed the seed where the soil was moist and loamy. 

Where the soil icas moist and loamy, is the dependent clause, modifying sowed 
in the sense of an adverb of place. 

He will be respected wherever he may be. 

As far as we went, the country was well cultivated. Page 250. 

Our language has no variety of clauses to express place. The farther any 
field of expression lies from the common track of thinking, the more it tends 
to circumlocution ; and vice versa. Place is something that presses so closely 
and variously into us, and its ideas are so obvious, that they have been fa- 
vored in language with the simpler garb of words and phrases (adjuncts). 

Adverbs of Manner. 

Forgive- us as we forgive our enemies. 

This is a complex imperative sentence. Forgive (thou) us, is the principal 
clause. As we for give our enemies, is a dependent clause of manner, modify- 
ing forgive. 

As he understands it, so he talks about it. Page 212. 

As blossoms in spring, so are hopes in youth. 

You will please to speak so that we can hear you. 

The dependent clause is explanatory of so, and so expresses manner ; but the ciauss 
also implies consequence. 

Degree or Extent. 

I am as tall as he. 

This is a complex declarative sentence. The principal clause is, I am as 
tall. The dependent clause is as he (is tall), which is an adverbial clause, 
modifying in an explanatory or limiting sense the phrase as tall, or more di- 
rectly the adverb as. It determines the degree. 

11* 



250 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

She sings as sweetly as a nightingale. 

This construction expresses sometimes mere manner ; but the idea of de- 
gree generally predominates. 

He is as kind to me as he can be. 

I was as much instructed as I was excelled. 

We were so fatigued that we could not sleep. 

They had advanced as far as they could with safety. 

I have gone so far that I can not turn back. 

There was such a noise that I could not write. 
In this construction the dependent clause generally implies more or Jess of 
degree; but it may also have, partly or wholly, the sense of an identifying 
clause explanatory of such. A similar remark is applicable to other clauses. 

After as and than, words are generelly understood. 
Contentment is better than wealth. 
He has more than I. He has more money than brains. 
I had more fear than it was prudent to confess. 
The more I use the book, the better I like it. 

This is a complex declarative sentence, consisting of two clauses that are mutually de- 
pendent. (Those who insist on having one independent clause in every sentence, can call 
the second clause the independent one. u When I have used the book more, I shall like 
it better.' 1 ) 

The deeper the well, the cooler the water. 

Decree is an abstract idea, but a very comprehensive and multifarious one, 
with which our judgments are much concerned ; hence language is both rich 
and complicated in regard to it. 

Cause, Purpose, Doubt, Concession, etc. 

The connectives in the following sentences are subordinate 
conjunctions ; but most of the dependent clauses answer to the 
adverb why, or imply doubt ; and hence the clauses fall into the 
general analogy of modal adverbs. 

The corn will grow, because it rained last night. 

This is a complex declarative sentence. The principal clause is, the corn 
will grow; the dependent clause is .the conjunctive clause because it rained 
hst night, which is used adverbially, to modify will groio, of the principal 
clause, by showing why. 

It rained last night, because the ground is wet. 

Observe that the cause, in this sentence, is logical, and not physical. The 
wet ground did not cause the rain, but the speaker's belief; and therefore we 
incline to think words should be supplied. Thus: " I know that it rained last 
night, because the ground is wet." A similar remark is applicable to some 
other sentences that have conjunctive clauses. 



ANALYSIS. 251 

Since the soil has been enriched, the corn will grow. 
As he is quite young yet, he should rather go to school. 
I will not sell the horse, for I can not spare him. 

Say that the dependent clause modifies will not sell. It is often better to 
say that a modifier relates to a phrase or clause, than to try to make every 
modifier relate to a single word. Analysis aims to take in the whole thought 
or the complete ideas, and it is therefore in accordance with its principles to 
dispose of phrases and clauses as if they were single words. Such a mode of 
analyzing will also often remove the perplexity when a word seems to relate 
to each of several words ; for in such cases it generally relates to the whol® 
expression rather than to any one word in it. 

When for joins two members of a sentence so loosely that they can be sepa- 
rated into two sentences, it is sometimes better to call the sentence compound. 

I am sorry that you did not come. 
1 have written to you, that you may know how we are. 
" These lofty trees wave not less proudly 
That their ancestors moulder beneath ihem." — Bryant. 
If both the vowels are sounded, the diphthong is proper. 
If spring have no blossoms, autumn will have no fruit. 
Were I a lawyer, I should not like to plead a rogue's case. 
Unless you do better, you will lose your situation. 
« Unsheathe not the sword, except it be for self-defense. 
However much I may regret it, I can not do otherwise. 
He hesitated A 26'/^/Aer he should do this. (As to.) 
If Virgil icas the better artist, Homer was the greater genius. 

This is a logical condition, not a physical. (See p. 250 ) " If you maintain that Virgil 
was the better artist, I shall maintain that Homer was the greater genius." 

Though the whole race of man is doomed to dissolution, and ice are 
all hastening to our long home; yet, at each successive moment, life 
and death seem to divide between them the dominion of mankind, 
and life seems to have the larger share. 

All the sentences of the foregoing class are allied to compound sentences ; 
and there are some grammarians who call them such. Sometimes it is better 
to call a sentence of this general class compound; and it seems to us, upon 
reflection, that it would be better to call such sentences as the last on p. 250, 
and the one above relating to Homer and Virgil, compound, than to supply 
words. 

I3F 3 In general, any part of all such complex sentences as we have 
shown, can he made compound, by adding similar words, phrases, or 
clauses, and thus making a series ; and any part can be made complex, 
by adding modifiers, which are generally different words, phrases, or clauses. 
It is thus that long complex sentences are produced. 



252 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. . 

637. Most of the long complex sentences are made so, — 

1. By a series of clauses. 

That is, some clausal element is expanded into a series. 

" I call that mind free which protects itself against animal appetites, 
which resists the usurpations of society, \ which recognizes its own 
greatness and immortality, \ and which ever delights to pour itself forth 
in fresh and higher exertions." — Channing, abridged. 
" We can not help knowing 

That shies are clear and grass is growing, 

That the breeze comes whispering in our ear, 

That dandelions are blossoming near, 

That maize has sprouted, that streams are flowing, 19 etc. — Lowell. 

2. By a gradation of clauses. 

" There is strong reason to suspect that some able WJjig politicians, 
who thought it dangerous to relax, at that moment, the laws against 
political offenses, but who could not, without incurring the charge of 
inconsistency, declare themselves adverse to relaxation, had con- 
ceived a hope that they might, by fomenting the dispute about the 
court of the lord high steward, defer for at least a year the passing 
of a bill which they disliked, and yet could not decently oppose." 

There is strong reason to suspect. 
That some able Whig politicians had conceived a hope. 
( Who thought it dangerous to relax the laws against political offenses. 
But icho could not declare themselves averse to relaxation.) 
That they might defer for at least a year the passing of a bill. 
Which they disliked, and yet could not decently oppose. 
For the complete analysis of this sentence, see Kerl's Comprehensive English Grammar. 

"He was a man | who never swerved from the path | which duty 

pointed out." 
" Come | as the winds come | when navies are stranded." 
" ' No/ | said he ; | ' for I never wished | that it might be so.' " 
"I knew a man | who had it for a by-word, | when he saw men 

hasten to a conclusion, | l Stay a little, | that we may make aiA 

end the sooner/ " — Bacon. 
We have now shown the different modes of forming nearly all complex sen- 
tences. There are, besides, a few peculiar sentences of this general class 
that lie in the unfrequented nooks and around the borders of the empire; but 
we must leave them to the judgment of the teacher, for we have not room for 
them, and they can easily be referred to the general definition, § 635. 



ANALYSIS. 253 

COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

638, A Compound Sentence is a sentence that has 
two or more independent clauses. 

It is a sentence in which the parts are connected, at their widest or greatest 
joint, by a co-ordinate relation. 

1. A sentence that consists of two clauses, connected 
by a co-ordinate conjunction, is compound, 

Ex. — The way was long, and the wind was cold. 

2. A sentence, consisting of two clauses that have no 
connective, is generally compound. 

Ex. — Some ran into the woods ; others plunged into the river. • 

639« A compound sentence may consist, — 

1. Of two or more simple sentences.* 
Ex. — Life is short, | and art is long. 

" The curfew tolls the knell of parting day ; 
The lowing herd wind slowly o'er the lea ; 
The ploughman homeward plods his weary way, 

And leaves the world to darkness and to me." — Gray, 

2. Of two or more complex sentences. 

" He lived as mothers wish their sons to live ; 
He died as fathers wish their sons to die." — Halleck. 
" What in me is dark, illumine ; what is low, raise and support." 
" The character of General Washington, which his contemporaries 
reverence and admire, will be transmitted to posterity; and the 
memory of his virtues, while patriotism and virtue are held sacred 
among men, will remain undiminished." 

3. Of two or more compound sentences. 

Ex. — "Talent is power, tact is skill; talent is wealth, tact is 
ready money." 

. u There 's the marble, there 's the chisel ; 
Take them, work them to thy will : 
v Thou alone must shape thy future, — 

Heaven give thee strength and skill." 

A compound sentence, consisting of two members ; and the first member, of two com- 
pound clauses, 

* " That is, of two or more clauses, equivalent to sentences." 



- 

254 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



4. Of a mixture of simple, complex, and compound 
sentences. 

Ex. — " Life is short, and art is long ; therefore it is almost im- 
possible to reach perfection in any thing." — Goethe. 
" Though the world smile on you blandly, 
Let your friends be choice and few ; 
Choose your course, pursue it grandly, 
And achieve what you pursue." — Read. 

A compound sentence, consisting of two members j and the second member, of two 
simple clauses and a complex clause. 

5. Of an independent clausal phrase, and a clause. 

" Triumphal arch ! that fill'st the sky when storms prepare to part, 
m ' : I a?k not proud philosophy to teach me what thou art." 
The independent clausal phrase here ranks with an independent clause. 

64©, Compound sentences may be divided into the fol- 
lowing classes : — 

Copulative. Parts united in Meaning. 

Times change, and we change with them. 

The house was sold ; a also the furniture. (And.) 

Alice has been studious, as well as James. 

The way is beset by enemies ; besides, we have no provisions. 

I believe it is so ; nay, I am sure it can not be otherwise. 

The people demand peace ; yea, the army itself demands it. 

Since mere succession implies addition or connection, copulative conjunc- 
tions are often omitted. 

" The way was long, the wind was cold, 

The minstrel was infirm and old." — Scott, 
14 It burst ; it fell ; and, lo ! a skeleton." — Rogers. 

Disjunctive. Parts united in Form but separated in Meaning. 

You may study your lessons, or you may write a composition. 
We can not assist him, nor can you. 
Strong proofs, (and) not a loud voice, produce conviction. 
Also clauses joined by or else or neither make compound sentences. 

Adversative. Parts opposed in Meaning. 

The world is made for happiness ; but many people make themselves 
miserable. 



ANALYSIS. 255 

There is much wealth In England, yet there are many poor people. 
He has acted unwisely ; nevertheless I will help him. [him. 

The wounded man died ; notwithstanding several surgeons attended 
The dictionary is not perfect ; still it is the best we have. 
The prospect is not good ; I will do, however, the best I can. 
He is a sensible man ; though he is not a genius. 

Illative, Parts related in the Sense of Consequence or Inference. 

The three angles are equal ; therefore the three sides are equal. 

Observe that the equality of the sides does not show how the angles are equal ; 
and although the first clause is the basis of the truth in the second, yet this 
meaning is taken up by the substitute therefore, which modifies the second 
predicate, being equivalent to the plu^se from this cause. And, understood, 
is the real connective. 

The ground is wet ; therefore it 'rained. 

He is not at home ; hence I have not written to him. 

Corn is very cheap ; so I concluded not to sell mine. 

You see I am busy ; then why do }ou trouble me ? 

The relation of consequence or inference is a very common and forcible 
one; and hence the. connective in many such sentences may also be omitted, 
the meaning being sufficiently obvious without it. By reversing the propo- 
sitions, the sentences would come under the head of cause ; and hence many 
sentences of this kind also dispense with the connective, and are then gen- 
erally compound sentences rather than complex. 

He is a mean boy ; let him alone. 

Let him alone : he is a mean boy. 

Such a sentence may be consfdered compound, chiefly because it could be 
divided into two sentences. 

He is poor : deal liberally with him. 
Deal liberally with him : he is poor. 
Live not in suspense : it is the life of a spider. 

To the foregoing sentences may be added a few others that are somewhat 
different; but of which the second clause is still in some way explanatory of 
the first, or is suggested by it. 

You know the man ; do you not ? 

" Each rising art by just gradation moves : 

Toil builds on toil ; and age on age improves." — Collins. 

"Ambition often puts men upon performing the meanest offices: 

eo climbing and creeping are performed in the same posture." — Swift. 

" That which we have acquired with most difficulty, we retain the 

longest; as those who have earned a fortune, are generally more 

careful in keeping it than those who have inherited one." — CoUon. 



:ab. 

Parenthetic. An Extraneous Clause between Related Parts. 

A parenthet in the sense of a part 

of speech, and that has not the remainder of the sentence for 
its object, generally make- :ence compound. 

u A rose — I know not how it came there — lay on mv book." 

A rose lay on my book : I know not how it came there. 

u They call us angels — though I am proud to say no man c 
insulted my understanding — that they may make us slaves." — JerroUL 

When yon meet with a long sentence, glance throogh it, and notice die 
joints between clauses. If the sense at the greatest or widest of these joints 
is a subordinate relation, the sentence is complex; if a co-ordinate relation, 
the sentence is compound. 

The general construction of sentences is tins : Words make phrases ; 
words or phrases make simple sentences ; simple sentences make complex 
or compound sentences; and simple, complex, or compound sentences 
v:.-':. : : -.-.'..-■ ::'. -::: .-. ; -. = . C : t. ; ". r :■: ■.--..-. .:.;-. ir; - . \. .: .„r : -.1 : . '. : 
compact in structure ; and compound, loose 

A senlence is sometimes compound in form, bnt complex in sense ; and 
sometimes complex in form, bnt compound in sense. When these char- 
acteristics are strongly developed, the sentence may be analyzed accord- 
ingly. (See Kerl's Comprehensive Grammar, p. 85.) For the sake of 
greater effect, conditional or dependent clauses are sometimes expressed in 
the form of independent interrogative or imperative clauses. 

Having now shown the general construction of sentences, let us next no- 
:.'-'-- ~ ~- ::" - .=-. r.i. ■'--.-_ z -- -. ~1'.-.'l ". 7 \h rz;.::..r.ei ir.L-.: :~., L—i-.— 

N . 
641 1 Brevity, in the construction of sentences, is ob- 
tained either by ellipsis or by a mt. 

642. Compound constructions are generally short 

643, Complex constructions are generally shortened by 
abridgment. 

614. Compound Elements. When the clauses 
compound sentence have the same predicate, the sentence 
can be changed to a simple one with a compound sub; 



COHTRACnOH 

" Wheat grows well on these hills, and barley grows well on these hills." 
Wheat and barley grow well on these Mils. 

645, When the clauses of a compound sentence have 

the same subject, the sentence can be changed to a 

simple one with a compound predicate. 

" The hnrricane tore down trees, and the hurricane overturned ho 
The hurricane tore down trees, and overturned hov 

646, When the clauses of a compound sei iiave 
the same subject and predicate-verb, all the repeated 
parts can be omitted. 

■ He is a wise : a good man ; and he is a patriotic man." 

He is a wise, good, and patriotic man. 

647. A compound modifier is* contracted by referring 
the common part to the rest of the phrase as a compound. 

Ex. — u In peace and in war " = In peace and war. 

" To the house and from the house w = To and from the house. 

" To speak prudently and act prudently '" = To speak and act prudently. 

648. Simple Sentences are often contracted by re- 
taining only the most important part, or that which 
necessarily implies the rest. 

-Brcad." -Order:" Wttl" 

Give me some bread. us have order. Arm ye yourse 

In accordance wirh this an ?rma- 

649, The verb be\ in all its forms, is frequently omi: 
H "Where now her glittering towers ? " Where are now. 

u This done, we instantly departed." This bang done, etc. 
[ To be] - Everybody's friend, [is to be] everybody's fool." 
The subject of the imperative mood is generally omitted : and an 
imperative verb may be om ;t when there remains 

ihfe adverb to represent the :pression. 

650. Language frequently affords us the choice of 
either a word, a phrase, or a clause : especially in regard 
to m 

Q 



258 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 






651. A word or phrase that remains as the result of 
abridgment, generally retains the logical construction of 
the phrase or clause which it represents, or from which 
it is abridged. 

Ex. — "I believe that he is honest " — I believe him to be honest. 

To ascertain the syntax of a difficult word or phrase, it is often 
best to consider the term the result of contraction, and to pass thence 
to the original expression ; yet it must not be supposed that there 
ever was a perfect and ponderous language from which all the parts 
thus supplied have fallen away by ellipsis or abridgment. 

There are many exceptions to what is usually taught about equivalent ex- 
pressions. The constructions which we are obliged to call equivalents, fre- 
quently differ from each other, at least rhetorically, by a shade of meaning. 
"I believe that he is honest" and**' 1 believe him to be honesty are equivalent; 
but " I will see that he does it" and '• I will see him do it" are different. " A 
purse of silk " is the same as " a silken purse " ; but " a purse of gold" is not 
" a golden purse." 

652, Complex Sentences can often be abridged into 
simple sentences. 

Ex. — " As we approached the house, we saw that the enemy were 
retreating" == On approaching the house, we saw the enemy retreating. 

The abridged part is usually the dependent clause. 

653 The abridged form of a substantive clause is gen- 
erally an infinitive phrase. 

" That 1 may go alone, is my wish" = To go alone is my wish. 
" It is my wish that I may go alone " = It is my wish to go alone. 
" I wish thai he may go alone " = I wish him to go alone. 
Sometimes tha dependent clause 13 abridged into a participial phrase. 

654. The abridged form of an adjective clause is, — 

1. An adjunct or an adjective. 

Ex.-— " Our house which is in the country" = Our house in the 
country = Our country house. 

2. A participial phrase. 

" The book which contains the story " = The book containing the story. 

3. An infinitive phrase. 

" A day that may suit you " = A day to suit you. 

4. Sometimes an absolute phrase. 

For an example, see p. 269. 



CONTRACTION. 259 

655, The abridged form of an adverbial clause is, — 

1. An adjunct. 

Ex. — " You will suffer from cold, if you remain here" 
You will suffer from cold, by remaining here. 

2. A participial phrase. 

Ex. — " When I had eaten my dinner, I returned to the store." 
Having eaten my dinner, I returned to the store. 

3. An infinitive, phrase. 

Ex. — "I have come that I may assist you" 
I have come to assist you. 

4. An absolute phrase. 

" When Cozsar had crossed the Rubicon, Pompey prepared for battle." 
Cozsar having crossed the Rubicon, Pompey prepared for battle. 
Sometimes there remains, by abridgment, simply a participle, an 
infinitive, or a single word of some other kind. 

658. Sometimes only the prominent part of the depend- 
ent clause is retained. 

" When young, life's journey I began" = When I was young, etc. 
"Ifso, you need not remain longer " = If it is so, etc. 
" It is more easily imagined than described " ; i. e., than it is described. 
The pronoun, and the verb be, are thus often omitted together. 

657i When the principal and the subordinate clause 
have both the same subject, the subordinate clause gen- 
erally loses its subject by abridgment. 

" When / had done this, / returned " = Having done this, /returned, 
"/came that I might assist you " = / came to assist you. 

658. When the principal and the subordinate clause 
have different subjects, the subject of the subordinate 
clause usually remains ; but it is generally changed in its 
case, to suit the syntax of the new arrangement. 

" I expect that he will come " = I expect him to come. 

" There is no doubt that he wrote it " = There is no doubt of his having 
written it. " When he ivas caught, we returned " = He being caught, we re- 
turned. 

The subject of the dependent clause generally becomes, by contraction, an objective 
word, a possessive word, or a nominative absolute. 

12 



260 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

659. A modifying phrase can often be abridged into a 
compound word. 

Ex. — "Boots with red lops" = red-topped boots. "Having a 
sharp edge " = sharp-edged. 

680. Connectives can often be omitted. 

See §§ 176, 551, 559. 

ARRANGEMENT. 

661. The place most important in a sentence is the be- 
ginning ; and the next most important is the end. 

Hence the subject, which is the germ of the whole sentence, nat- 
urally stands first ; as, " Rome was an ocean of flame." — Croly. 

662. When a subordinate word, phrase, or clause, de- 
notes what is most striking, or what is uppermost in the 
speaker's mind, it may occupy the chief place. 

Adjective : " Great is Diana of the Ephesians." 

Verb : " Oat-flew millions of flaming swords." — Milton. 

Object : " Sdver and gold have I none." 

Adverb : " Down I set him, and away he ran." 

Adjuncts : " By these [swords], we acquired our liberty; and with these," etc. 

Infinitive or Participle : " To do this, men and money are needed.'' 

683. Frequently, an adjunct, a participial phrase, or 
an infinitive phrase, may be transposed. 

Ex. — "7n proportion to the increase of luxury, the Roman state 
evident!}; declined " = The Roman state, in proportion to the increase 
of luxury, evidently declined = The Roman state evidently declined 
in proportion to the increase of luxury. 

6S4, Frequentlj-, the clauses may change places, or 
one may be placed within another. 

Ex. — "If you desire it, I will accompany you " = I will accom- 
pany you, if you desire it — I will, if you desire it, accompany you. 

G3j# Some regard should be paid to the relative im- 
portance of the parts, and to the natural order of things. 

G80. A sentence so constructed that the meaning is 
suspended till the close, is called a period. 

See the beginning of the Declaration of Independence. 






ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 261 

SENTENCES FOR PARSING. 

D^" The following sentences comprise the general circuit of principles 
involved in Parsing. 

J.* 

A fisherman's boat carried the passengers to a small island. 
Mexico lies between the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. 
I have John's book, not Mary's. He, being a mere boy, was 
spared. He being a mere boy, the Indians spared him. Friends, 
Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears. Hail, Sabbath, thee 
I hail, — the poor man's day. 

2. 

I will never forsake you. The party reposed themselves on 
the shady lawn. John and James know their lessons. Neither 
John njor James knows his lesson. It is wicked to scoff at re- 
ligion. It is too early for flowers. It was he. My heart beat3 
yet, but hers I can not feel. 

3. 

That man is enslaved who can not govern himself. Assist 
such as need thy assistance. Whatsoever he doeth, shall pros- 
per. I see you what you are. Whom do you take him to be ? 
" Who is there to mourn for Logan ? — Not one." The profit 
is hardly worth the trouble. The Atlantic Ocean is three thou- 
sand miles wide. 

4. 

On the grassy bank stood a tall waving ash sotmd to the very 
top. There are two larger pear-trees in the second row. The 
cedars highest on the mountain are the smallest. It is well to 
be temperate in all things whatsoever. You are yet young 
enough to learn the French language very easily. She gazed 
long upon the clouds in the west, while they were slowly pass- 
ing away. The pipers loud 13 and louder blew; the dancers 
quick 10 aiid quicker flew. 

5. 

Eespect yourself. I would I were at home. You or he is 
to blame. You behave too badly to go into company. James 



262 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ran fast, pursuing John, and pursued by us. Considering his 
age, he is far advanced. To speak plainly, I do not like her. 
To escape was impossible. It is easier to be a great historian 
than a great poet. The sailors, in wandering over the island, 
found several trees bearing delicious fruit. That he should 
think so, is strange. 

6. 
A troop of girls are searching for flowers on yonder hill. 
The Rhone flows out from among the Alps. Washington died 
at his residence, on the 14th of December, 1799; and was 
buried near the Potomac, among his relatives. However, if 
they do not come, I shall neither wait nor return. Such, alas ! 
is the fate of ambition. 

CONDENSED ORDER OF ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Sentence ; simple, complex, or compound ; declarative, interrogative, im- 
perative, exclamatory, or a composite of. 

Independent Phrase, if any; principal word, modifiers. 

Simple Sentence 5 subject, subject-nominative, modifiers ; predicate, predi- 
cate-verb, modifiers. 

Complex Sentence % independent or principal clause; analysis. Depend- 
ent clause or clauses ; analysis. 

Compound Sentence ; consisting of, § 639. Analyze the clauses. 

— ♦ — 

Article: kind, disposal; Rule. 

Adjective ? kind; sub-class; comparison; degree; disposal; Rule. 

Noun ; kind ; gender; person ; number ; declension ; case; disposal; Rule. 

Pronoun ; kind ; sub-class ; antecedent and Rule IX, or gender, person, 
number; declension; case; disposal; Rule. 

Finite Verb; principal parts; kind in regard to form; kind in regard to 
objects, — with voice ; mood ; tense ; form ; synopsis ; conjugation ; 
person and number; disposal; ilule. 
Omit synopsis, conjugation, and declension, when familiar to the student. 

Infinitive % its forms ; kind in regard to time; kind in regard to objects, 
— with voice ; disposal; Rule. (So, Participles.) 
Infinitive, used as a noun •, its nature as an infinitive ; its nature as a noun *, rli?p^sal •, 

Rule tor nouns (In a similar way dispose of participial nouns and participial adjectives.) 

Adverb; kind; comparison; degree; disposal; Rule. 

Preposition % relation ; Rule. 

Conjunction ; kind ; connection ; Rule. 

Interjection ; kind ; Rule. (See KerlV " First Lessons/' p. 121.) 



i 1. Manners 
beautiful. 3. 



ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 263 

SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

The following collection of sentences is of such a nature, and has been so 
classified, us to exhibit the types of sill sentences, and the general construction 
of language according to the principles of Analysis. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
Simple Subjects and Predicates. 

Unmodified. 

1. Banners waved. 2. Lights were shining. 3. He 
should have been rewarded. 4. Could they have gone ? 
5. To whisper is forbidden. 6. Whispering is forbidden. 

Modified by Words and Phrases. 

make fortuues. 2. These roses are very 
Too much fear/is an enemy to good deliber- 
ation. 4. Virtuous youth brings forth accomplished and 
flourishing manhood. 5. Milton, the author of Paradise 
Lost, was deeply versed 10 in ancient learning. 

Modified by Clauses. 

Subject. — 1. They who are set to rule over others, must 
be just. 2. There was one clear, shining star, that used 
to come out into the sky before the rest, near the church 
spire, above the graves. 3. The disputes' between the 
majority which supported the mayor, ?and the minority 
headed by the magistrates, had repeatedly run so high 
that bloodshed seemed inevitable. 

Predicate. — 1. Heaven has imprinted, in the mother's 
face, something that claims kindred with the skies. 2. I 
was assured that he would return. 3. We found, in our 
rambles, several pieces of flint which the Indians had once 
used for arrow-heads. 

Inverted and Elliptical Constructions. 

1. In every grove warbles the voice of love and pleas- 
ure. 2. Bursts the wild cry of terror and dismay. 3. How 
wonderfully are we made ! 



264 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. Write. 2. Sweet the pleasure. 3. Here the wigwam 
blaze beamed on the tender and helpless. 
4, "Where's thy true treasure?" Gold says, "Not in me"; 
And, "Not in me," the Diamond. Gold is poor! 

3. Supply children. Or say, Tender and helpless are adjectives, relating to some 
noun understood that denotes persons ; and they are also used as a noun, because they 
represent the noua understood, — and hence of the com. g , 3d p , pi. n., etc. 

Infinitive Phrases used as Subjects. 

1. To relieve the poor is our duty. 2. To pay as you 
go, is the safest way to fortune. 3. To have advanced 
much farther without supplies, would have been dangerous. 

Sometimes we find also participial phrases used as subjects *, but clauses or infinitire 
phrases are generally preferable to such constructions. 

Inverted and Elliptical. 

Unknown to them, when sensual pleasures cloy, 
To till the languid pause with finer joy. 
Clauses used as Subjects. 
1. That the earth is round, is now well known. 2. How 
the soul is connected with the body, is a great mystery: 
3. "Dust thou art, to dust returnest," was not written 
of the soul. 

Compound Subjects and Predicates. 
Compound Subjects. 

1. Patience and perseverance can remove mountains. 
2. Either James or Henry is talking. 3. Ilis magnificence, 
his taste, his classical learning, his high spirit, and the 
suavity of his manners, were admitted even by his enemies. 

2. A sentence of this "kind can be considered compound, by supplying another predi- 
cate ♦, but it is more common to say simply that the subject is compound. Wh^n in 
parsing, however, a distinct predicate must be furnished to each nominative, then the 
sentence, not the subject, should be considered compound -, as, " You or he is to bo 
b'amed." "The best books, not the cheapest, should be our object." 

1. To remain and to advance were equally dangerous. 
2. To fight that night, or to retreat, was the only alterna- 
tive left. 3. To hope and strive is the way to thrive. 

3. To hope and strive is the entire subject and the subject-nominative. To hope, is 
in part the subject of is. Is agrees with to hope and to strive conjointly, taken as one 
thing. 

Clauses. 

That he should take offense at such a trifle, that he 



ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 265 

should write an article about it, and that he should then 
publish it, surprised us all. 

Clausal Phrases* 

The wit whose vivacity condemns slower tongues to 
silence, the scholar whose knowledge allows no man to 
fancy that he instructs him, the critic who suffers no fal- 
lacy to pass undetected, and the reasoner who condemns 
the idle to thought and the negligent to attention, are 
generally praised and feared, reverenced and avoided. 
Compound Predicates. 

1. He rose, reigned, and fell. 2. Slowly and sadly they 
climb the distant mountains, and read their doom in the 
setting sun. 

3. The rose had been washed, just washed in a shower, 

Which Mary to Anna conveyed ; 
A delicate moisture encumbered the flower, 
And weighed down its beautiful head. 

4. Glass is impermeable to water, admits the light and 
excludes the wind, is capable of receiving and retaining 
the most lustrous colors, is susceptible of the finest polish, 
can be carved or sculptured like stone or metal, never 
loses a fraction of its substance by constant use, and is so 
insensible to the action of acids that it is employed by 
chemists for purposes to which no other substance could 
be applied. 

ADJECTIVE MODIFIERS. 

(Substantive Modifiers.) 

1. Articles. 
1. A church stands on the adjoining hill. 2. A states- 
man's character should be an honor to his country. 
Elliptical and Peculiar Constructions. 

1. A man and woman were drowned. 2. He bought a 
house and lot. 3. A river runs between the old and the 
new mansion. 4. A great many adjectives are derived 
from nouns. 5. Peter the Great is the pride of Russia. 



266 ENGLISH GRAMMAB, 

2. Adj eetives. 

1. This little twig bore that large red apple. 2. Green 
fields and forests were before us. 3. A swift and limpid 
rivulet purled over the pebbles. 4. He used very forcible 
but courteous language. 5. Two plum-trees, radiant with 
white blossoms on every bough, overtop the garden wall. 
6. The whole world swarms with life, animal and vege- 
table. 

1. Apple is modified by red ; red apple, by large ,• and large red apple, by that, 

2. Green belongs to both fields and forest s. 

Invented and Elliptical* 

1. It was a bright morning, soft and balmy. 2. Calm, 
attentive, and cheerful, he confutes more gracefully than 
others compliment. 3. Then followed a long, a strange, 
a glorious conflict of genius against power. 4. Violets 
meek and jonquils sweet she chose. 

2. The dependent clause, than others compliment, limits, determines, or completes 
the comparison j or it modifies the phrase more gracefully, by showing the manner and 
degree. 3. Supply conflict ; and put each conflict, after the first, in apposition with 
the first. 

3. Possessives. 

1. John's horse is in our garden. 2. Gen. George 
Washington's residence was on the Potomac. 3. Soft 
blows the breeze o'er India's coral strand. 

Elliptical and Peculiar Constructions. 

1. I will wait at Smith's, the bookseller. 7 2. I will wait 
at Smith 3 the bookseller's. 7 3. Lewis 3 and Raymond's 3 
factory was burned. 4. This is a discovery of Sir Isaac 
Newton's. 5. That head of yours has many strange fan- 
cies in it. 6. The bard of Lomond's lay is done. 

5. Yours, an idiom ; equivalent to your possession — See p. 221. 

6. Bard Qs) is governed by lay, and Lomond ('s) by of. 

4. Appositive or Explanatory Expressions. 
Nouns and Pronouns. 

1. Thou, thou, 7 art the man. 2. I myself was present. 
3. The nurse, that ancient lady, preached fiecorum. 

Q 



ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 267 

4. There is but one God, the author, the creator, and the 
governor of the world ; almighty, eternal, and incompre- 
hensible. 5. Thou sun, both eye and soul of the world. 

6. A cove, or inlet, divides the island. 7. As a writer, 
he has few equals. 8. Madame de Stael calls beautiful 
architecture frozen music. 9. Messrs. William and Robert 
Bailey were conversing with the Misses Barnes. 10. Two 
things a man should never fret about ; what he can help, 
and what he can not help. 11. The saint, the father, and 
the husband prays. 12. You are too humane and consid- 
erate ; things few 'people can be charged with. 

8. Calls is modified by beautiful architf dure frozen music, as the entire object ; 
and by architecture as the simple object. Music is put in apposition with architect- 
ure, and is partially governed by calls. 

9. William (Ba ley) and Robert Bailey are put in apposition with Messrs.} but 
Misses Barnes is best parsed as one noun. 

12. Things, nominative, in apposition with the adjectives humane and considerate ; 
Remark uader Rule VII. Supply which as the object of with. 

Infinitive Phrases. 

1. It is foolish to lay out money in a purchase of repent- 
ance. 2. It is our duty to be friendly toward mankind, 
as much as it is our interest that mankind should be 
friendly toward us. 

1. It, with the explanatory infinitive phrase, to lay out money, etc., is the entire sub- 
ject ; and it is the subject-nominative. It is modified by the phrase to lay out money, 
etc., as the entire appositive or explanatory phrase ; and by the infinitive to lay, as the 
simple appositive. 

Clauses. 

1. It is through inward health, that we enjoy all out- 
ward things. 2 It is scarcely to be imagined, how soon 
the mind sinks to a level with its condition. 3. Study is 
at least valuable for this — that it makes man his own 
companion. 

Inverted and Elliptical. 

1. Child of the Sun 7 , refulgent Summer comes. 2. Thy- 
self shalt see the act. 3. This monument is itself 7 the 
orator of this occasion. 4. I sold them for a dollar a pair. 7 

5. One by one the moments fly. 6. They had one each- 



268 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. He thought it an honor to do so. 8. Strange that a 
harp of thousand strings should keep in tune so long. 

2. Thou thyself. 4. I sold them, each pair for a dollar. 5. One by one rai^ht also 
be considered an adverbial phrase. 7. He thought it, to do so, an honor. To do so is 
in apposition with it. Honor is also in apposition with it ; but it is, besides, partially 
governed by thought. 8. It is strange, etc. 

5. Participles. 

1. Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again. 2. The 
deer, seeing me, fled. 3. The wolf, being much exasper- 
ated by the wound, sprang upon the horse. 4. There are 
twenty-six senators, distinguished for their wisdom, not 
elevated by popular favor, but chosen by a select body of 
men. 5. The blast seemed to bear away the sound of the 
voice, permitting nothing to be heard but 14 its own wild 
howling, mingled with the creaking and the rattling of the 
cordage* and the hoarse thunder of the surges, striving 
like savage beasts for our destruction. 

Inverted. 

6. Close beside her, faintly moaning, fair and young:, a soldier lay, 

Torn with shot and pierced with lances, bleeding slow his life away. 

6. This is one of the sentences in which it is <Hfficult to determine what makes the sub- 
ject, and what makes the predicate Perhaps the division is properly made thus : A sol' 
dier, fair and young, torn with shot and pierced with lances, \ lay close beside her, 
faintly moaning, and slowly bleeding away his life. It is sometimes difficult to de- 
termine whether an adjunct, an adjective phrase, a participial phrase, or an infinitive 
phrase, should be referred to the subject or to the predicate. — See p. 232. 

6. Infinitives. 

1. Contributions to relieve the sufferers were sent in. 

2. The book to be adopted by us should be compared 
with others of the same kind. 3. Persuade Mary to let 
him have his books. 4. Let us have some of these clams 
cooked for supper. 

4. Cooked is rather the present passive infinitive than the perfect passive participle. 
If the clams were already cooked, then it would be the participle. 

7. Adjuncts. 
Simple* 

1. The roar of the lion was heard. 2. She bought a 
house with its furniture. 3. The promises of Hope are 
sweeter than roses in the bud, and far more flattering to 






ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 269 

expectation. 4. The sailors did not like the idea of being 

treated so. 5. There is a flower about to bloom. 6. The 

question of who is to lead them, was next discussed. 

Complex. 

1. A Gothic cathedral is a blossoming in stone, subdued 

by the insatiable desire of harmony in man. 2. The gold 

in a piece of quartz from the mines of California, weighed 

several pounds. 

Compound* 

1. The large elm between the house and the river seems 
to be the king of the forest. 2. Brazil is regarded as a 
land of mighty rivers and virgin forests, palm-trees and 
jaguars, anacondas and alligators, howling monkeys and 
screaming parrots, diamond-mines, revolutions, and earth- 
quakes. 

8. Clauses. 

1. The man who sows his field, trusts in God. 2. Self- 
denial is the sacrifice which virtue must make. 3. We 
encamped by a limpid rivulet, that purled over the peb- 
bles. 4. He paid more for the flowers and gems which he 
brought, than they are worth. 5. 7 Tis the land where the 
orange and citron grow. 6. There is plain proof that 15 he 
is guilty. 7. The man with whom love is a sentiment, 
ever yearns for a home of his own. 8. Get what is needed. 

Inverted and Elliptical. 

1. Whom ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto 

you. 2. We have no such laws as those by which he 

was tried in the State from which he came. 3. 'T is the 

land I love. 

Abridged. 

She turned, — a reddening rose 7 in bud, 

Its calyx half withdrawn, — 
Her cheek on fire with damasked blood 

Of girlhood's glowing dawn ! — Holmes. 

Its calyx half withdrawn is an absolute phrase, used here in the sense of a relative 
clause describing rose. Her cheek [being] on fire, etc., is an absolute phrase, used 
here for an adverbial clause of manner or cause, and modifying turned. 



270 ENGLISH GRAMMAB. 

ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS. 

(Predicate Modifiers.) 

1. Objectives. 
Nouns and Pronouns. 

1. Birds build nests. 2. The soil produces corn, hemp, 
tobacco, wheat, and grass. 3. Here we saw green fields, 
groves of ancient oak, and happy homes embowered in 
tufts of shade. 4. The hurricane even tore down enclos- 
ures that had been lately made, trees that had stood for 
ages, and mansions that had been built of stone. 5. She 
gave what she could not sell. 

Infinitives and Participles. 

1. I like to study. 2. We preferred to remain at home, 
and learn our lessons. 3. He intended to move to the 
West, to purchase him a farm, and to end his days on it 
in peace and quiet. 4. He knew not what to say. 5. After 
such a hint, I could not avoid offering her my assistance, 
and regretting my apparent want of gallantry. 

Clauses. 

1. I believe that he is honest and industrious. 2. Every 
one must have noticed how much more amiable some chil- 
dren are than others. 3. She saw that we were tired, and 
needed some refreshment. 4. Tell us not, sir, that we are 
weak, unable to cope with so formidable an adversary. 
5. They said that Halifax loved the dignity and emolu- 
ment of office, that while he continued to be president it 
would be impossible for him to put forth his whole strength 
against the government, and that to dismiss him would be 
to set him free from all restraint. 6. Who can tell who 

he is ? 

Inverted and Elliptical. 

1. Me glory summons to the martial scene. 2. Him 
well I knew, and every truant knew. 3. I have nothing 
to say. 4. " Trifles, " said Sir Joshua Reynolds "make 



ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 271 

perfection ; but perfection is no trifle." 5. that those 
lips had language! 6. Heaven hides from brutes what 
men, from men what spirits, know. 7. Teach me my own 
defects to scan ; what others are, to feel ; and know myself 
a man. 

3. Supply that I wish, or which I am able, or which it is proper for me ,' or else 

parse to say according to § 401. 

2. Predicate Substantives. 
Nouns and Pronouns. 

1. He is a farmer. 2. She was appointed governess. 
3. Man is a bundle of habits and relations. 4. His daily 
teachers had been woods and rills. 5. This aunt Betsy 7 
was the neatest and most efficient piece of human machine 
ery that ever operated in forty places at once. 6. A poor 
relation is the most irrelevant thing in nature, an odious 
approximation, a haunting conscience, a perpetually re- 
curring mortification, a drawback on your rising, a stain 
in your blood, a drain on your purse, and a more intoler- 
able drain on your pride. 7. It is we who are Hamlet. 

8. I shall be all anxiety, till I know what his plans are.* 

9. " Shall we not wait for Decius ? — No; were he ten 
times Decius." 10. I knew it to be him. 11. He, being 
a partner 7 , was called in as a witness. 12. "He is tired of 
being a loafer 2 - 

13. She looks a goddess, and she walks a queen. — Dryden. 

12. When a governing word cuts off one substantive from the other, Rule VII can not 
be applied. 

Infinitives and Participles. 

1. To venture in was to die, 2. The best way to pre- 
serve health is to be careful about diet and exercise. 
3. The great object of all knowledge is to enlarge and 
purify the soul. 4. There is nothing like facts ; seeing is 
believing. 5. It was being idle that made me miserable. 

Clauses. 

1. My impression is, that you will succeed. 2. The law 
should be, that he who can not read should not vote. 



-272 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. The excuse was, that the army had not been well enough 
equipped, and-that the roads were too bad. 
4. It is not that my lot is low, 

That bids the silent tear to flow ; 

It is not grief that bids me moan, 

It is that I am all alone. 

4. The relative that, of the second line, relates to the clause that my lot is low* as 
its antecedent, or to it. — See p. 298. 

Inverted and Elliptical. 

1. A joy thou art, and a wealth, to all. 2. We stand the 
latest, and, if we fall, the last, experiment of self-govern- 
ment. 

3. The moss his bed, the cave his humble cell ; 
His food the fruits, his drink the crystal well. 

3. Predicate Adjectives % 

1. You are studious. 2. Her countenance looked mild 
and gentle. 3. The question now before Congress is prac- 
tical as death, enduring as time, and high as human destiny. 
4. Blennerhasset is described as having been amiable and 
refined, and a passionate lover 7 of music. 5. To bleach is 
to make white. 6. Correct the heart, and all will go right. 
7. To be poor is more honorable than to be dishonorably 
rich. 8. There is no way of being loved but by being 
amiable. 

4. When a participle is thus construed with an adjective, call the participle a parti- 
cipial adjective. 8. Except to be loved by being amiable. 

Inverted and Elliptical. 

1. Lovely art thou, Peace! 2. Deep in the sea is a 
coral grove. 3. Large, glossy, and black hung the beauti- 
ful fruit. 4 Green 7 s the sod, and cold the clay. 5. 
vain to seek delight in earthly things. 

4. Adverbs. 
Verbs Modified. — 1. lie spoke eloquently. 2. The net 
was curiously woven. 3. The bird flew rapidly away. 
4. What he did, he did patiently, accurately, and thor- 
oughly. 5. His heart went pit-a-pat. 6. Do not aim low. 






ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 273 

Adjectives Modified. — 1. The work is very useful. 2. The 
well is deep enough. 3. How various, how animated, how 
full of interest, is the survey ! 4. I had never seen any 
thing quite so beautiful before. 

Adverbs Modified. — 1. We marched rather slowly. 2. You 
have come altogether too soon. 3. The car runs not quite 
fast enough. 

Adverbial Clauses. 

1. The child seemed to recline on its mother's bosom, 
as some infant blossom on its parent stem. 2. The cottage 
stood where the mountain shadows fell when the sun was 
declining. 3. Remember, while you are deliberating, the 
season now so favorable may pass away, never to return. 
5. When misfortunes overtake you, when sickness assails 
you, and when friends forsake you, religion will be your 
greatest comfort. 5. The farther we went, the worse we 
tared. 6. As you sow, so you shall reap. 

6 Observe that not the sowing, but the reaping, is described. As is a conjunctive ad- 
verb that joins its clause to sha'L reap to express mauner, according to Not^ VI. Or say, 
As is an adverb of mann?r, modifying sow according to Rule XIT1 5 and it is also a or 
responding conjunction relating to so, and connecting two clauses according to Rule XV. 
Parse so in a similar manner. 

Inverted and Elliptical. 

1. Up soars the lark, the lyrical poet of the sky. 2. Here, 
all is confusion ; there, all is order and beauty. 3 Whei* 
young, life's journey I began. 

4. The blessed to-day is as completely so, 
As who began three thousand year? ago, 

The man blessed to-day as ho who, etc. 

5. Participles. 
1. He walks limping. 2. They lay concealed. 3. He 
went on his way rejoicing. 4. Now the bright morning 
star, day's harbinger, comes dancing from the east. 
5. The scythe lies glittering in the dewy wreath 
Of tedded grass, mingled with fading flowers, 
That yester-morn bloomed waving in the breeze. 



274 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

6. Infinitives. 

Verbs Modified. — 1. The child seemed to sleep. 2. She 
was supposed to be rich. 3. lie was known to have as- 
sisted the editor. 4. To curb him, to stand up against 
him, we want arms of the same kind. 

Adjectives Modified. — 1. She is rather young to go to 
school. 2. It is a thing not easy to be done. 3. Pope 
was not content to please ; he desired to excel, and there- 
fore always did his best. 

Adverbs Modified. — 1. It is too badly done to last. 2. It 
was so bright as to dazzle our eyes. 3. He proceeded too 
cautiously to fall into such a trap. 

It is probably best to suy, that as to dazzle our eyes raodiQes .so bright. 

Note V. — To say truth, Jack heard these discourses 
with some compunction. 

7. Adjuncts. 

Verbs Modified. — 1. I am in trouble. 2. Deliver us from 
evil. 3. Religion dwells not in the tongue, but in the 
heart. 4. You are suspected of having been negligent. 
5. This will depend on who he is. 

Adjectives Modified. — 1. Let us be watchful of our liber- 
ties. 2. He is indolent about every thing. 3. They wero 
invincible in arms.* 

Inverted and Elliptical. 

1. By fairy hands their knell is rung. 2. Come, go 
with me the jungle through. 3. On that plain, in rosy 
youth, they had fed their father's flocks. 4. According 
to some ancient philosophers, the sun quenches his flames 
in the ocean. 

5. Like the leaves of the forest when summer is green, 
That host, with their banners, at sunset were seen. . 

4. Supply To believe^ etc. 5 for the sun does not quench his flames according to these 
ancient philosophers. 

8. Clauses. 
1. We came that we might assist you. 2. He is afraid 
that you will not return. 3. I am convinced that he is right. 

This class com [irises a few clauses that can not be referred to any preceding class, and 
that are adjunctive in sense. 



QUESTIONS. 



275 



QTJESTIOITS FOR EEVIET7. 



17. 

18. 

19. 

20. 

21. 

22. 
23. 

24. 

25. 
26. 

27. 

28. 
29. 

30. 
31. 
32. 
33. 

31. 

35. 

33. 



40. 
41. 
12. 

43. 

41. 

45. 



Repeat the Rules of Syntax. 4G. 

Repeat tue Noces. 

(jive the general formula for parsing. 17. 

What is Analysis? . . . *iI571 

What is Parsing? . . . 572 48. 

How do they diiier? 

What is said of discourse ? . . 573 49. 

What other division of discourse ? 5<4| 

What are the chief kinds of prose ? 576 50. 

Of poetry ? 5<6 5i. 

What else is said of discourse ? 577, 5<8J 

What is a paragraph ? . . 579 

What is a sentence ? . . . 581 

What is a proposiiion ? . . . 582 53. 

What is a clause ? . . 583 

U*hen is a clause or sentence de- 54. 

clarative ? — interrogative ? — im- 55. 

perative ? — exclamatory ? . . 584 56. 

Into what classes are sentences di- 
vided ? 537 

On what three syntactical relations 
is Analysis chiefly based ? . 589'57. 

What are the elements of sentences ? 590 ! 53 

Into what six classes can these be |59. 
divided? 593! GO. 

Into what can all sentences be re-, CI. 
solved? 591 62. 

What else may a sentence have? . 592 63. 

What two chief words or terms 
must be in every proposition? 594 64. 

What is the subject -nominative ? . 595 

What is the predicate- verb ? . 596 65. 

Of what two parts must every 66. 

clause or proposition consist ? . 597 

What is the subject? . . 598 67. 

What is the predicate ? . . . 599 

How are subjects and predicates 68. 

classified? .... 600 

Define these classes ? . . 601 - 601 69. 

What is a modifier ? . . . 605 

What kinds ( f modifiers are there ? 606 

What is an adjectiveor substantive 70. 

modifier ? .... 607 

Ted, so far as you can, by what a 71. 

noun or pronoun may be modified. 608 72. 

What is an adverbial or predicate 
modifier? 609 73. 

Tell, so far as you can, by what a 74. 

finite verb, an infinitive, or a par- 
ticiple can be modified ? . . 610 

What modifiers can adjectives and 
adverbs ha\e? . . . 611 i 76. 

What more is said of modifi- 
ers? . . . . 612-614177. 

What parts of speech are never 
modified? 

What parts of speech, then, can 
have modifiers ? 

What is said of primary and of sec- 
ondary modifiers? 80. 

An infinitive, used as a noun, can 81. 

have what kind of modifiers ? . 615' 

A participial noun ? . . . 616 82. 

What is said of modified phrases 
and clauses ? . . . . 617 83. 

What is said of modify ? \ 



What is said of the predicate-verb 

be? 619 

Into what classes can the predicate 

modifiers be divided ? . . . 620 
What kinds of words are connec- 
tives? 621 

What words or phrases are used in- 
dependently ? 623 
What more is said of them ? . 6^4 
From what does a phrase or clause 

usually take its name I . . 625 

What is said of phrases, in regard to 

form, parsing, and analysis ? 626 - 628 
What is said of clauses, in regard to 

form , parsing, and analysis ? 629 - 631 
What is said of propositions ? 
What is a member of a sentence ? 
What is an independent clause ? — 
a principal clause ? — a dependent 
or subordinate clause ? — a co- 
ordinate clause? .... 632 
What is said of simple sentences? . 633 
What is said of complex sentences ? 635 
Of compound sentence.- ! . 638,639 
What is said of brevity ? . . 641 
Of ellipsis? . . . . 612 
Of abridgment? . . . .643 
How are compound sentences con- 
tracted ? . . . 644, 645, 646 
How are compound modifiers con- 
tracted ? 647 

How are simple sentences abridged ? 648 
What is said of the verb be y and of 

imperative propositions? . 649 
What is said of equivalent expres- 
sions? 650 

What is said of the syntax of 

abridged expressions ? . . 651 
How can the syntax of a difficult 
word or phrase be frequently most 
readily ascertained ? 
Into what are complex sentences 

abridged? .. . . . 652 

Which part is usually abridged ? 
Into what is an abridged substan- 
tive clause usually converted ? . 653 
An abridged adjective clause? . 654 
An abridged adverbial clause ? . 655 
When a complex sentence is abridg- 
ed, what is the etfecton the subject 
jof the dependent clause ? . 657, 658 
Into what can modifying phrases 

frequently be abridged ? . 659 

What p'aee in a sentence is consid- 
ered the most important? . . 661 
When may a subordinate element 

oeeupy the cnief place? . . 662 
What is said of transposing phrases 

and clauses ? . . 663, 664, 665 
W at is a period? . . . .686 
Sfate how sentences should be ana- 
lyzed. Page 262. 
State how each part of speech 

should be parsed. 
Which of the five parts of grammar 
are used in Analysis and Parsing ? 



PART V. 

WORDS IM^IROIPJEIRLY COMUBinSTED. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 

All the errors, in the use of language, can be reduced 
to four heads : — 



% 



1. Too Many Words. 

2. Too Few Words. 

3. Improper Word or Expression. 

4. Improper Arrangement of Words, 

1. TOO MANY WORDS. 



/vWfr) 






General Rule I. — No needless word should be used. 

This here is my seat.** That there is your place. 

I have got to go. You have got to stay. 

She is a poor widow woman. He died in less than twc hours time. 

You had n't ought to do it. He had n't ought to go. 

Had I have been there, I would have gone with them. 

Had I have known it, I could have sent yesterday. . 

His two sisters were both of them well educated. 

I bought it of the bookseller, him who lives opposite. 

The neck connects the head and trunk together. 

He went away about the latter end of the week. 

You will never have another such a chance. 

* Wa shall not encumber the following exercises with formulas. Surely the teacher, 
if at all competent, can show the student how to correct the sentences in a clear and 
sensible mann r. As a general rule, the pupil should first say that the sentence is in- 
correct ; he should then state in what respect it is wrong, make the necessary correction, 
and give his reasons for the change. Lastly, he may read the corrected sentence. 

Formerly, arithmetic was tauirht chiefly by arbitrary rules committed to memory. 
Si ice thi introduction of mental arithmetic into schools, pupil? r y ave been taught to 
reason out problems by relying rather on themselves for logic auu language. Can not 
a similar mode of instruction be applied to false syntax ? 



FALSE SYNTAX. 277 

There are but a few other similar places in the city. 

What is used for that and which. (Omit and.) 

It is equally as good as the other. Mine is equally as good as yours. 

The correlatives as and as themselves imply equality. — See p. 186. 

Who first discovered America ? When the world was first created, etc. 

For his avoiding that disaster, he is indebted to you. 

In their discussing of the subject, they became angry. 

He knows the lesson, but you do not know the lesson. 

Perseverance in laudable pursuits will reward all our toils, and will 

produce effects beyond our calculation. 
This is taught by Plato; but it is taught still better by Solomon 

than by him. Most is annexed to the end of these words. 
Our flowers are covered over. I was not able for to do it. 
I borrowed the knife for to sharpen my pencil. 
For was formerly used before the infinitive 5 but it should not be used so now. 

Where is William at? Their situation can hardly be conceived of. 
My father presented me with a new knife. 

A very common error. — He did not present me, but the knife. Omit with. 
Mr. C. S. Bushnell, of New Haven, has presented the divinity 
school with five thousand dollars. — N. Y. Times. 

Say, — : » has presented five thousand dollars to the divinity school." 

The emotion is at last awakened by the accidental in stead of by 

the necessary antecedent. — Wat/land. 

Omit the second by . 4i In a horizontal in stead of a perpendicular direction." — Everett, 

It is to you to whom I am indebted for this favor. 

The pronoun it needs you for its predicate-nominative •, and therefore to should be re- 
jected. 

It is to this last feature of the game laws, to which we intend to 

confine our notice. — Sidney Smith. 
Our debts and our sins are generally greater than we think for. 
At about what time will you come ? 
The performance was approved of by all who saw it. 
From thence we sailed to Liverpool. From whence it came I know not. 

Hence, thence, and whence, imply from, which therefore becomes superfluous wheq 
toserted before any of these words. 

Whenever he sees me, he always inquires after my health. 
He then told us how that he had always been a Union man. 

The carol they began that hour, 

How that a life was [is] but a flower. — Shakespeare. 
The carol, that a life is but a flower, etc. 



278 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

I have no doubt but that he will come. 

He never doubts but that he knows their intention. — Trench. 
This barbarous custom, and which prevailed everywhere, the mis- 
sionaries have abolished. 

A relative pronoun is a connecting word, and therefore does not allow and between it- 
self and the antecedent, except when the and is needed to join one relative clause to an- 
other. 

The distinguishing excellence of Virgil, and which he possessed 
above all others [other poets], is tenderness. — Blair. 

If I mistake not, I think I have seen you before. 

Her tears dropped and fell upon the face of her dying and expiring 
babe. A little flowing rivulet. Mr. Henry Felton, p]sq. 

A name should not stand between two titles, when the greater title implies the less \ 
but a name can have two or more titles, when one does not necessarily imply the other ; 
as, Rev. Dr. Lothrop. 

Under Paragraph 482. We made her to believe it. 
If I bid you to study, dare you to be idle. 
To go I could not. You need not to have staid. 
Make me to understand the way of thy precepts. 

Special Bules. 

1. A pronoun should not be added to its antecedent, 
when the antecedent alone would express the meaning 
better. 

John he went, and Mary she went ; but the rest they all staid at 
home. Henry Barton his book. (Apply also Rule III.) Mary John- 
son her book. These lots, if they had been sold sooner, they would 
have brought a better price. These wild horses having been once 
captured, they were soon tamed. It is indisputably true, his asser- 
tion ; though it seems erroneous. 

2. When two negatives are equivalent to an affirma- 
tive, only one of them should be used to express denial. 

I will never do so no more. We did n't find nobody at home. 

Chauge also any word of the sentence, when it is necessary to do so. 

I don't know nothing about your affairs ; and I don't want to know. 
I never said nothing about it to nobody. 
Death never spared no one. She will never grow no taller. 
I sha'n't go, I don't think. (Change the sentence.) 



FALSE SYNTAX. 279 

This England never did, nor never shall, 

Lie at the proud foot of a conqueror. — Shakespeare. 

Neither you nor nobody else can walk ten miles in one hour. 

No banker, brewer, nor merchant, wanted a partner. — Newspaper, 

3. Double comparatives and superlatives should be 
avoided. 

The office could not have been given to a more worthier man. 

A farmer's life is the most happiest. 

She is the most loveliest one of the sisters. 

She seemed more lovelier to me than ever before. — Croly. 

The lesser quantity I remove to the other side. 

The ending er, of the comparative degree, is equivalent to the word more* 

Nothing can be more worse — worser. 

These were the least happiest years of my life. 

This was the most unwisest thing you could have done. 

4. The article is commonly omitted, — 

1. When a word is u-ed merely as a title. 

2. When a word is spoken of merely as a word or name. 

3. When we refer to the kind generally, or to only a part 
indefinitely. 

Santa Anna now assumed the title of a Dictator. 

The original signification of knave was a boy. 

The ancients supposed the air, the earth, the water, and the fire, to 

be the elements of all material things. 
What kind of a man is he ? What sort of a thing is it ? 

A kind or sort is comprised in the general class, rather than in a single object. 
I have had a dull sort of a headache all day. 

The Tennessee and the Mississippi are names from the Indian tongues. 
The whites of America are the descendants of the Europeans. 

5. When connected descriptive words refer to the 
same person or thing, the article can generally be used 
only before the first of the words. 

A white and a black calf is one calf with two colors. 

There is another and a better world. 

My friend was married to a sensible and an amiable woman. 



280 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

She is not so good a cook as a washerwoman. 

Fire is a better servant than a master. 

I am a better arithmetician than a grammarian. 

Everett, the patriot, the statesman, and the orator, should be invited* 

The earth is a sphere, a globe, or a ball. 

The Old and the New Testaments make the Bible. 

Better : « The Old Testament and the New make the Bible " ; or, " The Old and the 
New Testament make the Bible." 

The first and the second pages were our first lesson. 

The terror of the Spanish and the French monarehies. — Bolingbrohi 

6. Do not make transitive verbs intransitive, by insert- 
ing a needless preposition. 

Pharaoh and his host pursued after them. 

We had just entered into the house. Follow on after us. 

His estate will not allow of such extravagance. 

If you can wait till to-morrow, I will consider of it. 

We entreat of thee to hear us. I do not recollect of such an instance. 

Many talented men have deserted from the party. 

7. Do not let the same word, sound, or expression re- 
cur too frequently, nor in close proximity to itself. 

The fault is still worse when the word is used in different senses. 

Too much of the same sound frequently produces harshness, and is always 
so unpleasant to the ear that the word monotony has become a common term 
for whatever is disagreeable from excessive sameness. 

The subject of which I shall now treat, is not a subject of general 
interest; but no other subject is of greater importance to the 
subjects of this kingdom. 
Pronouns, auxiliary verbs, and the word so, are often convenient substitutes. 

Avarice and cunning may gain an estate, but avarice and cunning 

can not gain friends. (Substitute the?/.) 
A catalogue of the children of the public schools of this city has been 

published. (Substitute in.) 
John's friend's horse ran away. § 278. 
1 believe that he is the man that I saw. (Substitute whom.) 
One can not imagine what a monotonous being one becomes if one 

constantly remains turning one's self in the circle of one's favor* 

ite notions. A person he, etc. 

Observe that the irregularities in the declension of pronouns give beauty to language- 



FALSE SYNTAX. 281 

2. TOO FEW WORDS. 

General Rule II. — No necessary word should be 

omitted. 

White sheep are much more common than black. 
lie does not know you better than John. (Ambiguous.) 
Lovest thou me more than these ? You suppose him younger than I. 
A squirrel can climb a tree quicker than a boy. — Webster, 
Hi did it for your and my friend's welfare. 
Ignorance is the mother of fear as well as admiration. 
He had fled his native land. He was expelled the college. 
What prevents us going ? What use is it to me ? 
The remark is worthy the man that made it. 
My business prevented me attending the last meeting. 
She could not refrain shedding tears. 
San Francisco is the other side the Rocky Mountains. 
Out of these modifications have sprung most complex modes. 
Say, — " most of the," etc. •, for otherwise most apparently modifies complex* 

The court of France or England was to be the umpire. 
The valley of the Amazon is perhaps as large as the Mississippi. 
Let us consider the works of nature and art, with proper attention. 
The word depends on what precedes and follows. (Supply ichat.) 
She praises who praise her. (Object wanting; supply those.) 
Wc speak that we do know, [taken from him. (Supply which and he.) 
The privileges to which he was entitled, and had long enjoyed, were 
An officer on European and on Indian service are in very different 

situations. — S. Smith. (Supply service and one.) 
Though virtue borrows no assistance from, yet it may often be ac- 
companied by, the advantages of fortune. — Blair. 

So great a separation between two prepositions or other words that govern the same 
object, always pro; luces a disasrreenble hiatus in the sense •, therefore place the noun after 
the first preposition, and the corresponding pronoun after the second. 

He first spoke for, and then voted against, the measure. 

The freight was added to, and very much increased, my expenses. 

He is not now in the condition he was. (Supply in which.) 

The omission of a relative adjunct generally produces a disagreeable gap in the sense. 
Yonder is the place I saw it. This is the way it was done. 
The money has not been used for the purpose it was appropriated. 
I shall persuade others to take the same measures for their cure that 
I have. No man can be more wretched than I. (Supply am.) 



282 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

I never have and never will assist such a man. 

They either have or will write to us about the matter. 

Money is scarce, and times hard. (Supply are.) 

Allocable, by zeugma (p. 300) ; yet when a verb or an auxiliary is omitted near a dif- 
ferent form of the same verb or auxiliary, the attraction between the expressed verb and 
the nominative of the omitted verb generally produces a disagreeable hiatus in the sense. 
In other words, it is generally improper to omit the verb when a different form of it is 
required. 

The winter is departing, and the wild-geese flying northward. 
The ground was covered with forests, and the ravines hidden. 
A dollar was offered for it, but five asked. 
I can not go, but I want to. I have not subscribed, nor do I intend to. 

Allowable in the most colloquial styl? ; though it is generally inelegant to let a sentence 
end with a word so iusigniiicant. Supply go and subscribe. 

This must be my excuse for seeing a' letter which neither inclination 

nor time prompted me to. — Washington. 
We ought not speak evil of others, unless it is necessary. § 482. 
It is better live on a little than outlive one's income. 
This old miser was never seen give a cent to any charitable under- 
lease excuse my son for absence yesterday. [taking. 
Allowable in the familiar style ; though it is generally better to insert to. 

How do you like up here ? We like right well up here. 
This is an error common in New England. Supply to live or some other words. 

Surely no man is so infatuated to wish for a different government 

from that which we have. Page 186. 
He is a man of visionary notions, unacquainted with the world, unfit 

to live in it. 

Special Rules. 

1. The article the is frequently needed to show that all 
of a class are meant ; and when connected descriptive 
words refer to different persons or things, an article is 
generally needed before each of the words. 

The Indians are descendants of the aborigines of this country. 
Men who are indolent, generally complain of hard times. 
A black and white calf were the only two I saw. 
The white and black inhabitants amount to several thousands. 
A beautiful stream flowed between the old and new mansion. 
The sick and wounded were left at this place. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 28S 

2. In comparison, other r else, or a similar word, must 
sometimes be inserted to prevent the leading term from 
being compared with itself. 

That tree overtops all the trees in the forest, 
lie thinks he knows more than anybody. 
Nothing is so good for a sprain as cold water. 
There is no situation so good anywhere. 
No magazine is so well written as the Atlantic Monthly. 
Jacob loved Joseph more than all his children. 

Noah and his family outlived all the people who lived before the flood. 
In no case are writers so apt to err as in the position of the word 
only. — Maunder. 

3. Parts emphatically distinguished, or to be kept dis- 
tinct in thought, should be expressed with equal fullness. 

Neither my house nor orchard was injured. (Supply my.) 

Both the principal and interest were paid. 

Neither the principal nor interest was paid. 

The principal, as well as interest, was paid. 

Not the use, but abuse, of worldly things, is sinful. 

The hum of bees, and songs of birds, fell sweetly on the ear. 

I would rather hear the whippoorwill than katydid. 

You must either be quiet, or must leave the room. 

God punishes the vices of parents, either in themselves or children. 

Such a relation as ought to subsist between a principal and accessory. 

They were rich once, but arc poor now. 

A man may be rich by chance, but can not be good or wise without 

effort.- 
He may be said to have saved the life of a citizen, and consequently 

entitled to reward. 
He is distinguished both as a teacher and scholar. 

Serial parts must generally be expressed with equal 
fullness or with uniformity. 

Such a law would be injurious to the farmer, mechanic, and the 

merchant. 

Either use the article but once, and place it before the first word, or else use It before 
each word. 

13 



284 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

She possesses more sense, more accomplishments, and beauty than 
the other. 

My duty, my interest, and inclinations, all urged me forward. 

He is a man of sagacity, experience, and of honesty. 

By industry, by economy, and good luck, he soon acquired a fortune. 

While the earth remaineth, seed-time and harvest, cold, heat, sum- 
mer, winter, day and night, shall not cease. 

4. It is generally improper to omit the subject-nomina- 
tive, unless the verb is in the imperative mood v or closely 
connected with another verb relating to the same subject. 

He was a man had no influence. (Supply who.) 

There is no man knows better how to make money. 

It was this induced me to send for you. 

If there are any have been omitted, they must say so. 

She saw at once what was best to do. This is what became us to do. 

Am sorry to hear of 'your misfortune ; but hope you will recover. 

This is a position I condemn, and must be better established to gain 
the faith of any one. 

Whose own example strengthens all his laws, 
And is himself the great sublime he draws. 

Will martial flames forever fire thy mind, 
And never, never, be to heaven resigned ? 

5. A participial noun generally requires an article be- 
fore it, and of after it; or else the omission of both the 
article and the preposition. 

Keeping of one day in seven as a day of rest, is required by the Bible, 

By the exercising our judgment it is improved. 

This is a betraying the trust reposed in him. 

A wise man will avoid the showing any excellence in trifles. 

A wise man will avoid showing of any excellence in trifles. 

Great benefit may be derived from reading of good books. 

ThTe is sometimes a difference in sense; as. "lie expressed his pleasure in henring 
the philosopher."' He heard. "He expressed his pleasure in the hearing of the philoso- 
pher." The philosopher heard. — In the use of a few verbs, when the antecedent t rra 
denotes the doer, both the and of should be omitted ; when the subsequent term denotes 
the doer, the and of should be used. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 285 

3. IMPROPER WORD OR EXPRESSION. 

General Rule III. — In the use of words, great care 
should be taken to select the most appropriate. 

To lay ; to make lie, to place. To lie ; to rest in a reclining position. 
To set; to place. To sit; to rest. To seat; to place in a sitting position, 
to furnish with a seat. To learn; to acquire knowledge. To teach; to im- 
part knowledge. To like; to be pleased with, to desire moderately. To 
love; to feel affectionate or very kind towards. To raise; fo lift. To 
rise; to erect one's self, to ascend. To affect ; to impress. To effect; to 
accomplish. To elude; to escape. To illude; to deceive. To suspect; to 
mistrust. To expect; to await, to regard as something that is to be. 
Stinted, insufficiently fed, restrained. Stunted; checked in growth, dwarf- 
ish. Go is estimated from the starting-point ; and come, from the point to 
be reached. Less implies size or number ; fewer, number only. Whole, 
the entire object; all, the entire number. Either, neither, or each other, 
should be used in speaking of two only ; any one, no one, none, or one an- 
other, in speaking of more. 

Into, from outside to inside ; in, inside only ; at, indefinitely in or about; 
in, definitely within; at, border, no surroundings; in, enclosure, surround- 
ings ; between or betwixt, two only ; among, three or more ; frequently, by, 
the agent, and with, the means or manner; a taste o/*what is enjoyed, a 
taste^or what we wish to enjoy; disappointed o/what is not obtained, dis- 
appointed in what fails to answer our expectations after it is obtained ; die 
of disease, by an instrument; compare with, for ascertaining merits, — to, 
for illustration ; attended by persons, with consequences ; agree with a per- 
son, to something proposed, and upon some settlement of affairs ; change 
for by substitution, and io or into by alteration ; concur with a person, in a 
measure, and to an effect ; a thing consists of what it is composed of, and 
consists in what it is comprised in; conversant with men, and in things; 
what corresponds ivi(h,\s consistent with, — and what corresponds fo, an- 
swers to ; defend or protect ourselves against, and others from ; disagree 
with a person, as to what is proposed ; usually, expert or skillful in, before 
an ordinary noun, — and at, when immediately before a participial noun ; we 
are familiar with things, and they are familiar io us ; indulge with occasion- 
ally, and indulge in habitually; we introduce a person to another, and a 
person or thing into a place ; intrude upon a person or thing, and into some- 
thing enclosed ; we usually look for what is sought, and after what is en- 
trusted to us; prevail with, on, or upon, by persuasion, — and over or against 
all opposition ; reconcile one friend to another, and apparent inconsistencies 
with one another; reduce under implies subjugation, and reduce tj implies 



286 ENGLISH GRAADfAR. 

simply a change of state; to have regard for, and to pay regard to; t 
unite to means to join to, and frequently as an appendage, — to unite with 
means to combine with, and generally as a colleague or an equal ; to vest 
authority in a person, and to inve>t a person with authority. 

Abhorrence of; abhorrent to, from ; access to; accord with ; accuse of ; 
adapted to: adequate to; agreeable to; aspire to; brag of; capacity for; 
comply with; confide in; conformable to, with; congenial to, with; con- 
sonant with; contiguous to; cured of; deficient in; dependent on; indepen- 
dent of; derogate from; derogatory to; destined to; differ froth, seldom 
with; difficulty in ; diminish from ; diminution of; discourage from ; dis- 
couragement to; disgusted at, with; disparagement to; dissent from; in 
distinction from ; eager in, for, after ; embark in, for; enamored of with; 
enter, entrance, on, upon, into; exception from, to, against ; exclude from; 
exclusive of; extracted from ; followed by; fond of; fondness for ; foreign 
to, from; founded on, upon, somet ; mes in; free from; glad of, sometimes 
at; guard agiinst ; hanker after ; inaccessible to; incentive to ; incorporate 
into, with, sometimes in; indulgent to; influence over, with, on; initiate 
into, sometimes in; inroad into; intermediate between; intervene between; 
inured to; invested with, in; involve in; join With, to; lame of; land at; 
level with; long fur, after ; made of; marry to; intermarry with; meddle 
with; martyr for; militate against; mingle with ; mistrustful of; neces- 
sary to, for; need of; neglectful of; object to, against ; occasion for; oifend 
against; offensive to; omitted from; overwhelmed with, In/; peculiar to; 
penetrate into ; pertinent to ; pleasant to ; pleased with; preferable to; pref- 
erence to, over, above; prejudice against; prejudicial to; preserve from ; 
productive of; profit by; profitable to; provide with, for, against ; pursuant 
to; pursuance of; refrain from ; relation to; release from ; relieve of from; 
rely on, upon; replete with; resemblance to, between; in or witli respect to; 
in or with regard to; rise above; rid of; similar to; strip of; subtract 
from; swerve from ; sympathize with ; sympathy for, with; unison with ; 
weary of; worthy of 

. Upon is to on as into is to in ; but it can often be used for on, and is then 
simply a little more forcible. 

The same preposition that follows a primitive word, naturally follows the 
derivative; but there are many exceptions. 

Verbs He laid abed till breakfast. Lay down and rest. 
aa ^ We had laid on the ground all night. — Newspaper. 
After laying awhile in this position, he raised up. 
We were all setting round the fire. We set up late. 
Set down a little bit. Are you <K)in£ to 20 ? I ain't £oin2 yet. 
I didn't go to do it. I calculate to invest my money in something else. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 287 

She is as peevish as a setting hen. The nurse sat him in a chair. 

The sun se ts ; and a current may set in a c rtain direction : but a hen rather sits 
than sets oa eggs ; and a garment sits or fits wed, though it may have a good set- 

I love bread and butter. Can you learn me to write ? 
The business will suit any one who enjoys bad health, 
lie was raised in the South. Carry the horse to water. 

Cattle and agricultural productions are raised / but a child or a family is reared in © 
certain style ot life- 

I expect it rained here yesterday. The garment was neatly sown. 
We suspect the trip will afford us great pleasure. 
All the bottom-lands along the Mississippi were overflown. 
They shall fly from the wrath to come. — flee — 
Very many rivers empty into the Mississippi. — flow — 
The thief illuded the police. He was much effected by the news. 
A verb ought to agree with its subject, in person and number. 
Say should ayrce, for owjht usually implies moral obligation. 

Write for me no more, for I will certainly . 

If I can .absent myself, I will to see him. 

He has made a fine crop of wheat. I am necessitated to go. 

To make a crop is perhaps as proper an expression as to make money ; still, crops 
are not manufactured. Why not prefer obfvjed or compelled to necessitated ? for the 
latter is a long, clumsy word, almost as uncouth as necessitude. 

Four goes in thirty, seven times, and two over. 
Corrected : Four is contained seven times in thirty, with two remainder* 

Be that as it will. T cannot give my consent. 

As it will implies certainty ; as it may implies uncertainty. 

lie throwed the ball. I seed him. He k no weil better. 

Only those verbs, or forms of verbs, should be used, which are authorized by good pres- 
ent usage. 

I drawed the line. I writ the name. He shoed the horse. 
We be all of us from York State. John alit from his horse. 
He was drownded. They were attackted. That is no preventative. 
The goods were shipt yesterday. Want of money has checkt trade. 
;i Dipt, stript, dropt, perplext, elapst, absorpt, linkt, distrest." 
Rather than thus be overtopt, 
Would you not wish their laurels cropt? — Swift. 
Thou didd'st weep for him. Thou mightest return. He try'd in vain 
Spirit of Freedom i once on Phyle's brow thou satt'st — Byron. 
The simpler forms, didst, miyhtst, tried, and satst, are preferable. 

Wast thou chopping wood ? Learns he the lesson ? 
In the familiar style, grave or poetic forms of expression are not becoming. 



288 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A drive into the country delighteth and invigorates us. 
The eve was fair, but the morn was cloudy and darksome. 
It was not taken notice of. — wan not noticed. 
It was made use of for this purpose. 
She said our noise and romping must be put a stop to. 
He was found fault with, and taken hold of. — censured and seized. 
Weights and measures were now attempted to be established. 
From Carlyle. Better -. " An attempt was now made to establish," etc. 

She is getting the better of her sickness. — recovering from — 
I have done written the letter. He is done gone. — already — 
Since you have made the first, you may do the rest. — male — 
No one ever sustained such mortifications as I have done to-day. 
I did not say, as some have done. — Bolingbroke. 
A poet can rise higher . . . than a public speaker can do. — Blair. 
She is administrator. He married a Jew. She is a good songster. 
She is a good singer ; for songster is now generally applied to birds. 

A cruel tyrant, and her name is Death. § 224. [gence. 

Her stupidness soon appeared. I thought she treated me with negii- 

Pronouii3 Take either of the five. Each one of the dozen is injured, 
and Any one of the two roads will take you to town. § 210. 

Adjectives. Neither one of these three hats is large enough for mv head. 

Jack and Peg called one another nicknames. — Swift. $ 210. 

Mankind resemble each other most in the beginnings of society. 

Verse and prose run into one another like light and shade. — Blair. 

You may take e'er a gne or ne'er a one, just as you please. 

That, very point which we are now discussing, was lately decided in 
the supreme court. § 21 1. 

These very men with whom you traveled yesterday, are now in jail. 

There is a right road, and there is a wrong road, before every per- 
son : this leads to happiness; and that, to misery. 

It all tends to show that our whole plans had been discovered. 

A proper fraction is less than one, because it expresses less parts 
than it takes to make a unit. — Colburn. 

I am willing to pay a hundred or two dollars. [part. 

We have not the least right to your protection. The least distinct 

These evils were caused by Catiline, who, if he had been punished, 
the republic would not have been exposed to such great dangers. 

Who is used here as a mere connective, or it is deprived of its chief syntax. ($622.) 
Say, — u the punishment of whom would have prevented the republic from being ex- 
posed to dangers so great." 



FALSE SYNTAX. 289 



He reached Charleston about the same time that we did. 

Perhaps allowable, us being an Mi >m •, but t hat, in this construction, is a dubious word 
for parsing, bay, — ''about the time in which, we arrived there." 

At the same time that men are giving their orders, God is also giving 

his. While men, etc. 
He has never preached, that I have heard of. 
No man is so poor, who has not something to enjoy. 
Say, — " that he has not," etc. , for the idea of consequence predominates. — See p. 186./ 

Adverbs A wicked man is not happy, be he never so prosperous. 

and Home is home, be it never so homely. 

Conjunctions. H e i s seldom or ever here. 

He said nothing farther. I can go no further. 

Further ; additional, more ; applied to quantity. Farther, more distant 5 applied to 
epace. 

Such cloaks were in fashion five years since. 

Jlgo, from present time back •, since, from some past time forward. (Dictionaries do 
not make this distinction ; but it is nevertueless well founded.) 

I saw him about five weeks since. I have not seen him . 



Do like I did. You are not studious, like he is. — not so . . . as — 

As, and not like, should be used as a conjunctive adverb, between two clauses. 

A diphthong is where two vowels are united. 
A diphthong is when two vowels are united. 
Say, " A diphthong is the union of," etc. ; for a diphthong is neither place nor time. 

Fusion is while a solid is converted into a liquid by heat. 
He drew up a petition where he represented his grievances. 

Siiy, — "a petition in which," etc. ; for where might seem to be conjunctive ad- 
verb relating to drew. 

She is such a good woman. — so good a woman. 

Such expresses quality ; and so, degree. 

I have seldom seen such a tall man, 

The letter was not as well written as I wished it to be. 

He is such a great man, there is no speaking to him. 

Allowable, if the meaning is, he is a great man of such a kind that it is impossible to 
speak to him. But if degree only is meant, the phrase so great a man should be used. 

I will see if it rains or no. — whether . . . or not. Page 185. 

Whether it can be proved or no, is not the thing. — Butler. 

Go, and see if father has come. See if that will do. 

Tell me if we are going to have but one session to-day. 

Neither our position, or the plan of attack, was known. Page 186. 

I demand neither place, pension, or any other reward. — Franklin. 



290 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

I5y personif!cation,things are often treated as though they were hearers 

That is, — " as (they would be) ?/ they were hearers. '' 

You Ipok as though you have been sick. 
There is no doubt but what he is mistaken. 

After words of doubt, fear, or denial, that is preferable to but, but what, but that, an<5 
souictiines to test. Also how and as that ure sometimes used improperly for that. 

I have no doubt but you can help him. — Dr. Johnson. 
I am surprised how you could do such a thing. 
lie could not deny but what he borrowed the money. 
There is no question but the universe has certain bounds to it. 
I was afraid lest you would not return soon enough. 
I don't know as I shall go, and I don't know but what I shall. 
He is not so tired but what he can whistle. — that . . . not — P. 186, 
This is none other but the gate of Paradise. 
Other, else, or the comparative degree, must generally be followed by than.. Page 186. 

fairest flower, no sooner blown but blasted ! — Milton. V 
It is nothing else but the people's caprice. — Swift. ^v*** 

The loafer seems to be created for no other purpose but to keep up 

the ancient order of idleness. — Irving. 
Style is nothing else but that sort of expression which our thoughts 

most naturally assume. — Blair. 
There is no other umbrella here but mine. 
Nothing else but this will do. It was no one else but him- 

It would be still better to omit else from the two foregoing sentences. 

Scarcely had he uttered the word, than the fairy disappeared- (when) 

1 will not go without you go too. — xinless — 
They were all there, unless two or three. 
Proportion is simple and compound. — either . . . or — 

To borrow or to lend is equally imprudent. (Equally requires and.) 
Every one was dressed alike. — Swift. 

Say, "They were all dressed alike" *, for alike here requires plurality. 

The multitude rebuked them, because they should hold their peace. 
The donation was the more acceptable, that it was given without 

solicitation. 
Prepositions. lie died with a fever. He died for thirst. 
Do not let the dog come in the house. He came of a sudden. 
This is a very different dinner to what we had yesterday. 
I have little influence with him. I live to home. 
1 left my book to home. His case has no resemblance with mine 



1 



PALSE SYNTAX. 291 

I should differ with you, in regard to that affair. 

Well authorized, and therefore proper 5 still, from seems to be in better keeping with 
analogy. English writers generally say differ with, in reference to matters of opinion •, 
and differ from An ail other cases. k, I differ with the honorable gentleman ou that 
point." — Brouyham. 

The soil is adapted for wheat and corn. 

He was accused with having acted unfairly. 

The sultry evening was followed with a storm. 

(What is the difference between walking in a garden and walking 

into a garden ?) 

They spent the summer at the North, in a small village. 

He resides No. 125, Tenth Street. 

A person lives at a No., and in a street j also on a street, especially if it is wide, like 
an avenue. 

Please walk in the setting-room. " His prejudice to our cause." Dryden. 
Far preferable is a cottage with liberty, than splendor with debt. 
Such were the difficulties with which the question was involved, 
lie always tries to profit from the errors of others. 
You may rely in what I say, and confide on his honesty. 
I was disappointed in the pleasure of meeting you. 
There is constant hostility between the several tribes of Indians. 
The space between the three lines is the area of the triangle, (within) 
The greatest masters' of critical learning differ among one another. 
Say, — " among themselves " •, for we could not say one among another. 

A combat between twenty Texans against fifty Mexicans. 

Sundries. I was thinking of the best place for an office. [another. 
This can be made an objection against one government as well as 
Abercrombie had still nearly four times the number of the enemy. 
I am looking for reinforcements, which the enemy cannot expect. 
My Christian and surname begin and end with the same letter. 
Each then took hold of one end of the pole, to carry the basket. 
Between grammar, logic, and rhetoric, there exists a close and happy 

connection ; which reigns through all science, and extends to all 

the powers of eloquence. — Mahan. 

Observe that which does not denote the identical connection mentioned before it ; and 
therefore the word connection is not the proper antecedent. Say, "Grammar, logic, 
and rhetoric, have .... and such a connection reigns, indeed, through all science," etc. 

The use of which accents [Greek and Roman] we have now entirely 

' lost. — Blair. (We never had them to lose. Say, is lost.) 

Our pronunciation must have appeared to them [the Greeks and 

the Romans] a lifeless monotony. — Blair. (They never heard it 

Say, would have appeared.) 



292 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RULES OF SYNTAX. 

Rule I. 
Them that seek wisdom, shall find it. 

Incorrect: the pronoun them, in the objective case, is the subject of the verb shall 
find ; and therefore it should be they, in the nominative case, according to Kule I. 

Her and him were chosen. Thee art most in fault 
Hirn I accuse, has entered. He ivhom, etc. 
Who made the fire ? — John and me [made it]. 

The word containing the answer to a question must generally be in the same case as 
the word which asks it. 

Who swept the room ? — Us girls. 

Who rode in the buggy ? — Him and Jane. 

What were you and him talking about ? Whom shall I say called ? 

You did fully as well as me. He writes better than me. 

The whole need not a physician, but them that are sick. — Bunyan. 

We sorrow not as them that have no hope. 

I do not think such persons as him competent to judge. 

Truth is greater than us all. — Horace Mann. 

The advice of those whom you think are hearty in the cause, must 

direct you. — - Washington. 
A reward was offered to whomsoever would point out a practicable 

road. — Sir W. Scott. Obs. I, p. 193. 

Rule II. 

Them refusing to comply, I withdrew. Pages 96, 191. [education. 
Her being the only daughter, no expense had been spared in her 
I have no wish to be him. And me, — what shall I do ? 
He had no doubt of its being me. — that I was the person. 

Rule III. 

T will not destroy the city for ten sake. A five days journey. 
Brown, Smith, and Jones's wife, usually went shopping together. 
We insist on them staying with us. I rely on you coming. 
His father was opposed to him going to California. 
What do you think of [us? or our?\ going into partnership ? 

A participle that follows a noun or pronoun, becomes a participial noun, when the par- 
ticiple is the chief word in sense. 

Rule IV. 

Who did you call ? Who shall I send ? Who have you got ? 
Who can I trust in such a place, or who shall I employ ? 



FALSE SYNTAX. 293 

Let him send you and I. Let thou and I the battle try. 
Ye only have I known. Tell me who you mean. 
Let them the state defend, and he adorn. — Cowley. 
Him you should punish ; not I, who am innocent. 

Rule V. 
Who did you come with ? Who is it for ? W r ho do you work for? 
Who is that boy speaking to ? This is between you and I. 
They who much is given to, will have much to answer for. 
I saw no one there except he. " Who did he send for ? — We/' 
Who were you talking with ? Who shall I direct it to ? 
My son is to be married to I don't know who. — Goldsmith. 

When but and save ure followed by a substantive, and not by a clause, they are now 
considered prepositioas rather than conjunctions ; as, 4 - Whence ail Out hem had fled.'* — 
Htmans. " Ail desisted, ah save him alone." — IKords worth. 

Rule VI. 

A lad of twelve or fifteen years old. I returned oil yesterday. 

Let a gallows be made of fifty cubits high. — Bible. 

To an infant of two or three years old. — Wayland. 

Who do I look like ? She promised him and I some peaches, 

Rule VII. 

Let us worship God, he who created and sustains us. 

It is me. It was them. Was it him, or her ? 

I did not know it was her. I thought it was her. 

It was n't me, but him. It could not have been us. 

Is it me you want ? It was them that did it. 

Whom do you think it was ? Who do you take me to be ? 

Let the same be she whom thou hast appointed. 

Whom do men say that I am ? - — Bible. It is him who, etc. — S. Smith* 

Rule VIII. 

I would like to have it now, what I had then. 
Whatever she found, she took it with her. 

Rule IX. 

Nobody will ever entrust themselves to that boat again. 

When the antecedent is a substantive of the common gender, denotes a person, and is 
of the singular number, so that it becom°s necessary to choose either a masculine or a 
feminine pronoun, the masculine is preferred. § 221. 

Every person should try to improve their mind and heart. 
A person who is resolute,, energetic, and watchful, is apt to succeed 
in their under takings. 



294 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

If there is anybody down there, let them answer. 
She took out the ashes, and gave it to a servant. § 241. 
If you have any victuals left, we will help you eat it. 
When a bird is caught in a trap, they of course try to get out. § 222. 
The regiment was much reduced in their number. §§ 245, 246. 
The people can not be long deceived by its demagogues. 
The army being abandoned by its leader, pursued meanwhile their 
miserable march. 
Let the construction be either singular throughout or plural throughout, but not both. 

The tongue is like a race-horse, which runs the faster, the less weight 
it carries. — he carries. Or, — race-horse : it runs, etc. 

The pronominal construction should relate, throughout, either to the tongue or to the 
horse, but not to both. 

An idler is a watch that wants both hands, 
As useless when he goes as when he stands. 
Here the second line relates more directly to the watch. 

I have sowed all my oats, and it is growing finely. 

Our language is not less refined than those of Italy, France, or Spain. 

A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or with the noun which the pronoun 
represents. 

The peacock is fond of displaying its gorgeous plumage. 

The hen looked very disconsolate when its brood rushed into the pond. 

Horses is of the plural number, because they denote more than on«. 

Every half a dozen boys should have its own bench. 

Poverty and wealth have each their own temptation. 

Discontent and sorrow manifested itself in his countenance. § 461. 

One or the other of us must relinquish their claim. § 460. 

No man or woman ever got rid of their vices, without a struggle. 

gay, " his or her vices," etc. "When the antecedent is of the common gender, the 

masculine pronoun can be used ; but when the opposite sexes are distinctly mentioned, it 
is better to use a pronoun suitable to each antecedent than to use a pronoun suitable to 
one only. A different expression is sometimes still better. ' 

If any gentleman or lady wishes to have their fortune told, etc. 
Notice is hereby given to every person to pay their taxes. 

(Change the antecedent •, say, — " to all persons," etc.) 
Our teacher does not let any one of us do as they please. 
Every person and thing had its proper place assigned to it. — the — * 
I do not know which one of the men finished their work first. 
Coffee and sugar are brought from the West Indies ; and large quan- 
tities of it are consumed annually. § 461. 

More exercises., in the construction of pronouns, will be found under Rule XI. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 295 

Rule X. — Note II. 
The inlet was two mile wide. I bought three ton of hay. 
It weighed five pound. How do you like these kind of chairs ? 
I never could endure those kind of people. These sort of things. 
These sort of fellows are very numerous. — Spectator. Fellows of, etc. 
This twenty years have I been with thee. — Bible. 
Plurab down he dropped ten thousand fathom deep. — Milton. 
I measured the log with a pole ten foot long, — with a ten-feet pole. 
When a compound adjective consists of a plural numeral and a noun, the noun is not 
made plural. — See p. 316. 

The lot has twenty-five foot front, and is eight rod deep. 
The work embraces every minutiae — all the minutia — of the science. 
Learn the sixth and seventh page, and review the fourth and the 
fifth pages. 

Rule XI. 
Circumstances alters cases. The molasses are excellent. 
His pulse are beating too fast. Was you there ? 

He dare not meddle with it. She need not trouble herself. 

Need and dare, especially the former, are som- times u«ed by good writers m stead of 
needs and dares : but it is generally better to avoid such usage 

Five dimes is half a dollar. There was only seven of us. 

Peace has at last come, and with it has come many changes. 

Thou heard the storm ; did thou not ? Thou shall go. 

Oats is sowed in spring. Tion are pronounced shun. 

Such is the tales his Nubians tell. Every ten tens makes a hundred. 

§ 458. 
You and your companions must not forget their duty. 
John, you, and I, are attached to their country. 

* 459. 
Neither he nor you was mentioned. Is I or he to blame for it ? 
On that occasion, neither he nor I were consulted. 

§400. 

2. There go a gang of deer. Generation after generation pass away. 
A committee were appointed to examine the accounts. 

The society hold their meetings on Fridays. 
The fleet were seen sailing up the channel. 

3. u Reveries of a Bachelor " were written by D. G. Mitchell, 
6. Everybody are disposed to help him. 

Each strove to recover their position. 



296 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Every person are hereby notified to pay their taxes. 

Neither one are suitable to my purpose. 

Everybody is fighting, and have been for several days. — Newspaper. 

Every tall tree and every steeple were blown down. 

Every soldier and every officer remained awake at their station. 

Every leaf, every twig, and every drop of water, teem with life. 

Every skiff and canoe were loaded to the water's edge. 

No wife, no mother, and no child, were there to comfort him. 

No thought, no word, no action, whether they be good or evil, can 
escape the notice of God. . [regret. 

Many a man lool^s back on the days of their youth, with melancholy 

7. Either Thomas or George have to stay at bjme. 

Neither Holmes, Forbes, nor Jenkins, were classmates of mine. 

Neither the father nor the son had ever been distinguished for their 
business qualifications. If you should see my horse or mule, I 
wish you would have them turned into your pasture. 

Riding on horseback, or rowing a skiff, are good exercise. 

It is neither Osmyn nor Jane Shore that speak. — Blair. 

§4G1. 

1. Has the horses been fed ? There f s two or three of us. 
The victuals was cold. There is no tidings. 

There seems to be no others included. 

On each side of the river was ridges of hills. 

There was no memoranda kept of the sales. 

The book is one of the best that ever was written. 

Such accommodations as was necessary, was provided. 

He is one of the preachers that belongs to the church militant, and 
takes considerable interest in politics. 

What is twenty-two poor years to the finishing a lawsuit ! — Swift. 
While ever and anon there falls 
Huge heaps of hoary mouldered walls. — Dyer. 

2. The committee disagrees. At least half the members was present. 
The higher class looks with scorn on those below them. 

All the world is spectators of your conduct. 

In France, the peasantry goes barefoot, while the middle sort makes 

use of wooden shoes. 
Send the, multitude away, that it may buy itself food. 

3. Five pair was sold. Fifty head was drowned. 

Pair and head, when thus plural in sense without being plural in form, resemble col . 
lective nouns. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 297 

4. Mary and her cousin was at our house last week. 

Time and tide waits for no man. This and that house belongs to him. 
Hill and dale doth boast Thy blessing. 
In all her movements there is grace and dignity. 
Two and two is four, and one [and four] is five. — Pope. 
There seems to be war and disturbance in Kansas. 
Every store and residence were pillaged. 
Every merchant's store and residence was pillaged. 
Enough money and time has already been expended. 
Both minister and magistrate are sometimes compelled to choose be- 
tween his duty and his reputation. 

5. For the sake of brevity and force, one or more words is sometimes 
omitted. One or more persons was concerned. 

Neither beauty, wealth, nor talents, was injurious to his modesty. 
I borrow one peck, or eight quarts, and add to the upper term. 

§.402. 

1. Every one of the witnesses testify to the same thing. 
Each one of the vowels represent several sounds. 

How are each of the relatives used ? Neither of us have a dollar left. 

Either one of the schools are good enough. 

A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. 

Which one of these soldiers were wounded ? 

The sum of twenty thousand dollars have been expended. 

A hundred thousand dollars of revenue is now in the treasury. 

The mother, with her daughter, have spent the summer here. 

The mechanism of clocks and watches were unknown. — Hume. 

Nothing but expense and trouble have grown out of the business. 

The richness of their arms and apparel were conspicuous. — Gibbon. 

Each one of us have as much as we can do. Rule IX. 

Neither of us is willing to give up our claim. 

Correct, if common possession is meant ; . if not, our should be his. 
There is more stamina in the Western men. — more of — 
The idea of such a collection of men as make an army. — Locke. 

2. Lafayette Place, or Gardens, occupy several acres. 

3. Two parallel lines is the sign of equality. 

The sign of equality are two parallel lines. — consists of- — 
My cause and theirs is one. — Dry den. 

The few dollars which he owes me, is a matter of small consequence. 
13* 



208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Virtue and mutual confidence is the soul of friendship. 
To the Christian, the pleasures of this world is vanity. 

This sentence, as it stands, means that Christians take the greatest delight in vanity. 
Twelve single things, viewed as a whole, is called a dozen. 
Said the burning Candle, "My uso and beauty is my death." 
Minced pics was regarded as a profane viand, by the sectaries. — Hume. 
It is vanity and selfishness that ma a woman a coquet. 

In such constructions, the genuine antecedent is it ; but the relative clause is nsuallv 
attracted into the nearer or Identifying word or words, and agrees with th<m in grammat- 
ical properties. " 1c is the mental and moral /ore es tvkich govern the world." — Everett. 

4. and 5. Homer, as well as Virgil, were translated and studied ou 
the banks of the Rhine. — Gibbon. 
All the speakers, but especially the last one, was very eloquent. 
He, not less than you, deserve punishment. 
He, and not I, am responsible. I, and not he, is responsible. 
The father, and the son too, were in the battle. 

" Ay, and no too, was no good d.vinity." — Shakespeare. 
The sons, and also the father, was in the battle. 
Not his wealth, but his talents, deserves praise* 
It is his weal ih, and not lis talents, that give him position. 
It is his talent^, and not his wealth, that gives him position. 
There is sometimes more than one auxiliary to the verb. — Angus. 

The comparison itself excludes one term from the other. 

Special liulos. 

1. The pronoun them should not be used for the adjec- 
tive those. 

Them boys are very lazy. Give me them books. 
"What do you ask for them peaches ? Take away them things. 
Let seme of them boys sit on some of them other benches. 
Them are good mackerel. Them are my sentiments. 

2. Adverbs should be used to qualify verbs, adjectives, 
or other adverbs ; and adjectives, to qualify nouns or pro- 
nouns. 

She sews good and neat. Speak slow and distinct. 
The work is near done. I am only tolerable well. 
I never studied no grammar, but I can talk just as good as them that 

talk grammatical. I am exceeding busy. 
I was scarce sensible of the motion. You behaved very bad. 
1 came there previous. He acted conformable to orders. 
We ought to value our privileges higher. I can write easiest this way. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 299 

Apples are more plenty than peaches. — Webster. 
We landed safely after all our misfortunes. 

Things look much more favorably this morning. v 

IIow beautifully this whole section of country appears! \T)ryden. 

It rarely happens that a verse of monosyllables sounds harmoniously. 
I can not say a word too highly in praise of his services. — Grant. 
Now the moonlight began to prevail over the twilight, and Emma 
felt very poetically. — A Novel. 

3. The comparative degree is used when but two ob- 
jects are compared; and the superlative, when three or 
more are compared. 

The eldest of her two sons is going to school. The latter of three. 
John is the oldest, but James is the largest, of the two boys. 
Which is the largest number, -—the minuend or the subtrahend ? 
Which do you like best, — tea or coffee ? The last of two. 
W r hich is farthest north, — Chicago or London ? 
Choose the least of two evils. This hurt him worst of any thing else. 
China has the greatest population of any other country on earth. 

4. The leading term of a comparison should not be 
compared with itself, nor included in that to which it does 
not belong. 

When the comparative degree is used, the latter term of comparison 
should always exclude the former ; and when the superlative degree is used, 
the latter term of comparison should always include the former. But the 
term construed after the superlative degree should always express plural- 
ity ; for if it does not, the leading term is also compared with itself. Other, 
or a similar word, makes two distinct parts, but comprises them in one 
general class. 

Youth is the most important period of any in life. 

These people seemed to us the most ignorant of any we had seen. 

Lake Superior is the largest of any lake in the world. 

That boy is the brightest of all his classmates. 

That is a better-furnished room than any in the house. 

That is the best-furnished room of any in the house. 

China has the greatest population of any nation [country] on the globe. 

This was the thing which of all others I wished most to see. — Southey. 

Homer had the greatest invention of*any writer whatever. — Pope. 



300 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. Avoid all improper modes of expressing comparison 
or the plural number. 

I think the rose is the beautifullest of flowers. § 345. 

He is the awkwardest fellow I ever saw. 

He lives in the fartherest house on the street. 

The vallies of California are among the most beautiful in the world. 

We need two astronomys. All the Lee's were officers. 

They seem to have been only the tyro's, or younger scholars. — Swift. 

The vermins were so numerous that we could raise no fowl. 

We saw three deers in the wheat-field. Those are good mackerel. 

His brother-in-laws were educated at the same school. § 255. 

6. Words should not be compared, or made plural, 
when the sense does not allow or require it. 

It is the most universal opinion. This is more preferable than that. 
Virtue confers supremest dignity on man, and should be his chiefest 

desire. A more perpendicular line. (A line more nearly) 
It is not so universally known as you think. 

Say, — " not so generally" etc. j for so expresses degree, and therefore implies com- 
parison. § 3o7. 

I hope the people are more uncorrupt than their leaders. 

Say, — " less corrupt than their leaders." 
The farm is a long ways from market. Make a memoranda of it. 

Ey the same analogy, somewhercs, nowheres, etc., are frequently used improperly for 
wmewliere, nowhere, etc. 

Few persons are contented with their lots. 

It was for our sakes that Jesus died upon the cross. 

Ills father's and mother's names were written on the blank leaf. 

Better : " His father's name and his mother's were written," etc. — See p. 316. 
Both he and I were neither of us any great talkers. 

7. A should be used before consonant sounds ; and an, 

before vowel sounds. §§ 313, 314. 

We encamped in a open field. Such an one said so. 
It is an useful exercise, lie is a honest man. 
Argus is said to have had an hundred eyes. 
There was not an human being on the place. 
A heroic deed it was. It is an universal complaint. 
An ubiquitous quack.— Poe. An united people. —Jefferson. An hun- 
dred times. — Swift. • 



FALSE SYNTAX. t 301 

8. A or an denotes an indefinite one of several ; the 
denotes the only one, the class, or a particular one of 
several. 

He does not own as much as the fifth part of what you own. 

No particular fifth part was meant , and there are more fifths than one in a whole. 

An oak is a tree of great durability. That noble animal, a horse. 

The assertion may not be true of any one tree; but it is true of the class in general. 

A lion is bold. A pink is a very common species of flower. 
When a whole is put for the part, or the part for a whole, the figure" 
is called synec'doche. 

9. The object of the active verb, and not that of the 
preposition, should be made the subject of the passive 
verb. 

"We were shown a sweet potato that weighed fifteen pounds. 
You were paid a high compliment by the young lady. 
Mr. Burke was offered a very lucrative employment. — Goodrich. 
Washington was given the command of a division. — Irving. 
He was presented a beautiful sword by his neighbors. 

10. The possessive case of a noun should always be 
written with an apostrophe ; the possessive case of a per- 
sonal pronoun should never be written with an apostrophe. 

A possessive noun, in apposition with another, is sometimes written without any pos- 
s^siive sign. § 291. 

This is the boys hat. Six months interest is due. §§ 275, 276. 

A mothers tenderness and a fathers care are natures gifts for mans 

advantage. Mens and boys hats. 
No ones ability ever went farther for others good. § 304. 
The two electric fluids neutralized each others' effects. — Harper's 
These are our's. That' is your's or their's, not her's. [Magazine. 

Do not say yourn, hern, hissen, ourn, or theirn % for yours, hers, his, ours, or theirs. 

This mans place is taken. These mens places are taken. 

That officers servant is here. Those officers servants are here. 
This sheeps wool is fine. These sheeps wool is fine. 

11. A compound word or a complex term takes the 
possessive sign but once ; generally at the end, or next 
to the name of what is owned. 



302 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

I will meet you at Mason's, the apothecary's. 

We used to read about Jack's the Giant-killer's wonderful exploits. 

This palace had been the grand Sultan's Mohammed's. 

These works are Cicero's, the most eloquent of men's. 

12. A pair or series of nouns, implying common pos- 
session, take the possessive sign at the end, and but once. 

Bond's and Allen's store is the next one above us. 

Allen's, Thomson's, and Ilardcastle's store is opposite to ours. 

Peter's and Andrew's occupation was that of fishermen. 

Beaumont's and Fletcher's Plays were the joint production of two men. 

Bond and Allen's store is one store, belonging to both men. 

Bond's and Allen's store are two stores, one belonging to each man. 

That one ownership allows but one jwssessive sign, that each distinct ownership re- 
quires a distinct possessive sign, and Unit the possessive sign should l>e placed as near as 
possible to the name of what is owned, are fundamental ideas that govern the syntax of 
the possessive case. 

13. A pair or series of nouns, not implying common 
possession, or emphatically distinguished, take each the 
possessive sign. 

John and William's boots fit them well. Is it John or William's book ? 

Allen, Thomson, and Ilardcastle's store, are the next three above us. 

As well, or better, thus . " Allen's store, Thomson's, and Ilardcastle's, are the next," etc. 

They took the surgeon as well the physician's advice. 

14. To avoid harshness or inelegance, possession is 
sometimes better expressed by of; and sometimes even 
the possessive s may be omitted. 

Essex's death haunted the conscience of Queen Elizabeth. 
Leonidas's soldiers were as brave as himself. 
England and France's armies fought side by side in the Crime'a. 
Such were Daniel Boone of Kentucky's adventures. 
He thinks his own opinions better than any one else's opinions — 
any one's else opinions. — than those of any one else. 

In the colloquial style, the first expression is probably allowable. " Like nobody else's 
children." — JerrolJ: Mrs. Caudle. 

They east themselves down at Jesus's feet. 
Archimedes's screw is an hydraulic machine 



FALSE SYNTAX. 303 

15. Frononns should be so used that it may not be 
doubtful for what they stand. 

Pronouns are very indefinite words, and are therefore often liable to ambi- 

Ambiguity in the use of pronouns is generally best avoided by substituting 
nouns for them. 

Since pronouns are substitutes for nouns, it is hardly proper to make a pro- 
noun represent an adjective or a predicate when a better expression can be 
found. 

When a conjunction is to be supplied, it is called asyndedon. 

Say, — " the. Jirure is called," etc. (''When I see many its on a page, I always 
tremble for the writer." — Cobbett.) 

When a man kills another from malice, it is called murder. 

Religion will afford us pleasure when others leave us. 

The lord can not refuse to admit the heir of his tenant upon his 
death ; nor can he remove his present tenant so long as he lives. 

BlacJcstone. 

tie wrote to that distinguished philosopher [Aristotle] in terms the 
most polite and flattering, begging # of him to undertake his edu- 
cation, and to bestow upon him those useful lessons which his 
numerous avocations would not allow him to bestow. — Gold- 
sinilh's Greece. 

Philip wrote .... Alexander's education .... his own numerous, etc. 
John told James that his horse had run away. (Change the sentence.) 
They flew to arms, and attacked Northumberland's horse, whom they 

put to death. — Hume. 
The law is inoperative, which is not right. 

Say, — " and that it is so, is not right " 

The servant took away the horse, which was unnecessary. 

The prisoners rebelled against the regulations of the establishment, 

of which we shall presently give an account. 
Mr. Dana asked Mr. Gore's leave to say a few words, which he did; 

after which he retired from the Convention. — Elliot's Debates. 

16. Who is applied to persons, which to all other objects, 
and that to cither. 

For more definite directions, see pp 76, 77, and 78. 
Those which are rich, should assist the poor and helpless. 
Eve gave of the fruit to the other creatures in Eden, who all ate of 



304 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

it, and so became mortal, with the sole exception of the phoenix 
who refused to taste it, and consequently remained immortal. 

The horse and rider which we saw, fell in the battle. 

Of all the congregations whom I ever saw, this was the largest. 

Theeutire col-eetiou of persons is evidently regarded as one thing § 191. 

This was certainly the largest congregation which I ever saw. 

All the people which were present, joined in the prayer. 

There was a certain householder which planted a vineyard. — Bible. 

A butterfly, which thought himself an accomplished traveler, etc. 

Pitt was the pillar who upheld the state. 

I am the same as I was. I gave all what I had. [Alamo. 

It is the best which can be got. The heroic souls which defended the 

This lubberly boy we called FalstafT, who was but another name for 

fat and fun. (A mere name is a thing.) 
The most tremendous civil war which history records. — Newspaper. 
Who ever became great, who was not ambitious ? 
Who of these boys has lost a knife ? § 201. 
With the return of spring Game four martins, who were evidently 

the same which had been bred under those eaves the previous 

year. 

17. It is improper to mix different kinds of pronouns 
in the same construction. 

Know thyself, and do your duty. You have mine, and I have thine. 
Ere you remark another's fault, bid thy own conscience look within. • 
The poor man who can read, and that has a taste for reading, can 

find entertainment at home. 
The man who came with us, and that was dressed in black, is the 
preacher. Such as yours, or which you bought. — or such as — 
But what we saw last, and which pleased us most, was the farce, 
Policy keeps coining truth in her mints, — such truth as it can toler- 
ate ; and every die except its own she breaks, and casts away. 

18. It is generally improper to use different forms of 
the verb in the same construction. 
Does he not behave well, and gets his lessons well ? 
Did you not borrow it, and promised to return it soon ? 
If these remedies be applied, and the patient improves not, the case 

may be considered hopeless. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 305 

To profess regard, and acting differently, discovers a base mind. 

Spelling is easier than to parse or cipher. 

To say he is relieved, is the same as saying he is dismissed, 

19. What is forced upon the speaker, or what will 
simply happen to him, is better expressed by shall or 
should than r by will or ivould. 

Will or would generally represents the act or state as something desired or 
wished by the subject. — See also pp. 148 - 150. 

A foreigner, having fallen into the Thames, cried out, " I will be 

drowned: nobody shall help me." 
I was afraid I would lose my money. 
If I wished him to come, I would have to write to him. 
We will then find that this confiscation bill was impolitic; and we 

will have to suffer for our folly, in the protraction of this war. - — 

Crittenden, 
Death was threatened to the'first man who would rebel. 

The overt act was meant ; an 1 therefore should, not would, is the proper word. 
Whoever will neglect his duties, will sutler the appointed punishment. 

20. The past tense, and not the perfect participle, 
should be used to predicate, without an auxiliary, a past 
act or state. 

The perfect participle, and not the past tense, should 
be used after be, have, and their variations. 

I done so. They done the best they could. 

He run all the way. I never seen it. lie has took my hat 

I seen him when he done it. Mary has tore her book. 

I knew he had wrote it ; for it was well writ. 

The tree had fell, and its branches were broke. 

The apples were shook off by the wind. 

Toasts were [drank ? or drunk ?] 

You have chose the worse. — Irving. 

He had broke the ice. — Harper's Magazine. 

21. Avoid needless passive forms, and generally the 
passive form of intransitive verbs. 

He is possessed of great talents. We are agreed on this. 
My friend is arrived, lie was already come. 

T 



308 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

What is become of him ? The tumult is entirely ceased. 

The greater part of the forces were retired into winter-quarters. 

22. The indicative mood, in conditional clauses, ex- 
presses doubt in the regular time of the tense ; the sub- 
junctive mood expresses doubt or mere supposition, and 
makes the tense move forward in time. 

If you be now willing, I will accept the offer. 

Though he excel her in knowledge, she excels him in behavior. 

If I was you, I would accept the offer. 

If it rains to-morrow, we shall not go. — Sec pp. 131 - 133. 

If the book be in my library, I will send it. 

If the book is found in my library, I will send it. 

If the book was in my library, I would send it. 

If the book were in my library, some one must have taken it. 

Take care that the horse does not run away with you. 

Lest and that, annexed to a command, require the subjunctive mood after them. If y 
with but following it, when futurity is denoted, also requires the subjunctive mood. 

Beware lest he falls. Be it ordered that the law remains unchanged. 
If he comes but by 10 o'clock, !:c will be in time. 

23. The verbs of a sentence should correspond in 
tense, and also be consistent with the other words. 

I have bought it, and now I have sold it. Pages 136- 140. 

I know the family more than twenty years. 

By the first of next month, I shall finish this book. 

I should be obliged to him, if he will grant my request. 

Ye will not come unto me, that ye might have life. 

The most glorious hero that ever desolated nations, might have 

mouldered into oblivion, did not some historian take him into 

favor. — Irving. 
When the nation would have rushed again and again to war, his 

voice has sheathed the sword in lasting peace. 
"To-morrow will be Saturday"; correct; "To-morrow is Saturday " ; allowable. — 
See below, aud also ■$ 423. 4. 

24. Present facts and unchangeable truths must be 
expressed in the present tense. 

Our teacher told us that the air had weight. 



FALSE SYNTAX. SOT 

He told me where the church was. (An existing church was meant.) 
Is not that dear? — I should think it was. 
"What did you say his name was ? 
What did you say was the capital of Florida ? 
He seemed hardly to know that two and two made four. 
No one suspected that he was a foreigner- 
Plato maintained that God was the soul of the universe. 

25. The perfect infinitive denotes something as past at 
the time referred to ; and the present infinitive, as pres- 
ent or future. 

I intended to have written to him. 
It was your duty to have arrested him. 
I expected to have heard from him yesterday. 
I hoped to have met several of my friends there. 
He is supposed to be born about a thousand years ago. 
They were not able, as individuals, to have influenced the twentieth 
part of the population, — Jefferson. 

26. Avoid the needless use of compound participles in 
stead of simple participles ; and never use a compound 
participle as a part of a finite verb, unless it is absolutely 
necessary to use it. 

Such a poem is worth being committed to memory, (committing) 
"Whatever is worth bein£ done, is worth beinsj done well. 
Dram-shops are now being closed on Sundays. (Omit being,) 
The report is being circulated everywhere. 
Wheat is now being sold for a dollar a bushel. — is selling — 
The books are being printed. § 488. The new church is being built 

27. Avoid the ambiguous or clumsy use of participles 
in place of infinitives, clauses, or ordinary nouns. 

A participial noun is seldom the most appropriate expression, when it does 
not follow a preposition. § 509. 

A participial noun is seldom the most appropriate expression, when it is 
much encumbered with modifiers. 

Cyrus did not wait for the Babylonians coming to attack him. — Rollln 9 
My being sick was the cause of my being absent. 
14 



308 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

What is the reason of you not having gone to school to-day ? 
Going to law is giving the matter in dispute to the lawyers. 
Compromising conflicting opinions will ever be necessary in a republic, 
He failed reciting his lesson. No one likes being in debt. 
Her lameness was caused by a horse's running away with her. 

See Keri's Comprehensive Grammar., pp 235 and 159. 
Such will ever be the consequences of youth associating with vicious 

companions. 
(Since these objects are stripped of their importance, we wonder at 

their ever having been the cause of hatred and bloodshed. 

4. IMPROPER ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. 

General Rule IV. — All the parts of a sentence 
should be so arranged as to make it correct, clear, and 
elegant. 

Any violent break or separation in the natural order of words is generally 
improper, except when it is needed for great rhetorical effect. 

Poetry allows great liberty in the arrangement of words: but any inversion 
that perverts or obscures the meaning, or that is more uncouth than poetical, 
should be avoided. 

She praised the farmer's, as she called him, excellent understanding. 

Change also the kind of expression, when it is necessary to do so- 
A sober and industrious life he had nothing of. — Brougham. 
Nature mixes the elements variously and curiously sometimes, it is 

true. 
Adversity both taught you to think and to reason. — Steele. 

Special care should be taken to give correlatives their right place in the sentence. 

I shall neither depend on you nor on him- 
Not only he found her employed, but pleased and tranquil also. 
Our pleasures rather seem to spring from things too low that lie. 
How pleasant it is at night no follies to have to repent. 
His visage to the view was only bare, — Dryden, 
Sire, from the foot 

Of that great throne these hands have raised aloft 

On an Olympus, looking down on mortals 

And worshiped by their awe — before the foot 

Of that high throne — spurn you the gray-haired man ! — Bulwcr 






FALSE SYNTAX. 309 

Special Rules. 

1. Nouns and pronouns should be so used as not to 
leave the case or relation ambiguous. 

The settler here the savage slew. (Which slew the other ?) 
And thus the son the fervent sire addressed. — Pope. 
If the lad should leave his father, he would die. 

Substitute a noun for he, or change the order of the words. — See p, 303. 

The king dismissed his minister without inquiry, who had never be- 
fore done so unjust an action. 

Relative clauses should generally he placed as near to their antecedents as possible. 
He should never marry a woman in high life, that has no money. 

2. Politeness usually requires that the speaker shall 
mention the addressed person first, and himself last. 

I, Mary, and you, are to go next Sunday, 
Mother said that 1 and you must stay at home. 

Exception. — "When a fault is to be confessed, or when responsibility is to be assumed, 
it is generally more appropriate for the speaker to mention himself first. 

3. Adjectives, adverbs, and adjuncts, must generally 
be placed as near as possible to the parts which they are 
designed to modify. 

The bad position of adjectives and adjuncts is improved by bringing: them 
nearer-to what they qualify; and adverbs should generally be placed before 
the adjectives or adverbs vvtiich they modify, after verbs in the simple form, 
and between the auxiliary and the rest of the verb in the compound form, 

Sometimes there is a gradation of adjectives before a noun. When this is 
the ca>e, the adjectives should be so arranged that each may properly qualify 
all the remainder of the phrase which follows it; as, " An old man," u A re- 
spectable old man," " Three respectable old men." 

I bought a new pair of shoes. There is a fresh basket of eggs. 
I only recited one lesson. (Only what?) 

He is only so when he is drunk. Some virtues are only seen in ad- 
I shall be happy always to see my friends. [versity. 

He is considered generally honest. He is just such another man. 
They became even grinders of knives and razors. 
They all went to the party, nearly dressed alike. 
Every man can not afford to keep a coach, — Webster, 
I came not to call the righteous, but sinners, to repentance. 
All that glitters, is not gold. All that we hear, we should not believe. 
Please to sing the three first stanzas. The two last classes have not 
recited. Bows of silk small £reen buttons. 



310 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

At that time I wished somebody would hang me a thousand times. 
A lecture on the methods of teaching geography at ten o'clock. 
"Wanted — a young man to take care of some horses, of a religious 
turn of mind. [Eastern States. 

Tins victory seemed to be like a resurrection from the dead, to the 
There is a remakable union in his style of harmony and ease. — Blair. 
The solar system, space, and time. The most prudent and best men. 
Apparently, "solar space and lime." Apparently, "most best."' 

4. It is generally improper to place an adverb between 
to and the rest of the infinitive. 

They were not such as to fully answer my purpose. 

He had men enough to strongly garrison the fort. 

He knew not which to most admire. — Harper's Magazine, 

We were to cautiously and quickly advance to the hill abo.ve. 

5. When a part of a sentence refers to each of two or 
more other parts, it should be suitable to each. 

Cedar is not so hard, but mn"e durable, than oak. 

Cedar ik not so hard a* oak, hut more, durable. Complete the construction of the 
first part, and leave understood that of the second. 

She is fairer, but not so amiable, as her sister. [than the old. 

It is different and superior to the old. It is different and much better 

He can and ought to give more attention to his business. 

The reward has already or will hereafter be given to him. 

We have the power of retaining, altering, and compounding those 

images which we have received, into all the varieties of picture 

and vision. — Addison. 



Frequently, a sentence has two or more different errors. 

It is our duty to protect this government and that flag from every 
assailant, be they whom they may. — Douglas. 

Parents are of all other people the very worst judges of their chil- 
dren's merits ; for what they reckon such, is seldom any thing else 
but a repetition of their own faults. — Addison. 

Prepositions, you recollect, connect words as well as conjunctions; 
how, then, can you tell the one from the other. — 11. C Smith. 

The empire of Blefuscu is an island situated to the northeast side of 
Lilliput, from whence it is parted only by a channel of eight hun- 
dred yards wide. — > Swift. 



OBSERVATIONS. 311 

OBSERVATIONS. 

There are three great causes which will always produce errors in the use 
of language. These causes are loyical sense, euphony or attraction, and 
similarity. 

JjOgical Sense. — We arc sometimes governed, in our use of lan- 
guage, by the general meaning of words rather than hy their grammatical 
form. For instance, we frequently be^in a sentence with a singular gram- 
matical term that implies, however, plurality, or a class; and before we 
reach the end of the sentence, we forget or disregard the singular term 
with which we commenced, and select words according to the general or 
logical sense; as, u A person who is energetic and vigilant, is apt to suc- 
ceed in t'te'r undertakings/ 1 

Euphony or Attraction. — When two words approximate in 
meaning, yet one gives a better sound to the expression than the other, 
we sometimes select the more euphonious one even when it is less proper. 
It is probably from this cause that people are so apt to say them for those, 
and done for did. When two kindred expressions stand near each other, 
one is sometimes attracted into the form of the other, even when a differ- 
ence is required ; as, " He said it was forty miles from Baltimore to Wash- 
ington," for, " He said it is forty miles from Baltimore to Washington." 
Increase the distance between the terms, and there is loss attractive force; 
as, " He said that the distance from Baltimore to Washington is forty 
miles." " It was to him \ to whom I was mostly indebted, " for, " It was 
he | to whom I was mostly indebted. " To idiom being a forcible part of the 
unexpressed thought, it causes the utterance of to him in stead of he. 

Similarity. — When words, or forms of words, arc nearly alike, as 
wore and worn, broke ami broken, we are apt to mistake one for the other. 
It is, indeed, chiefly tins slight variety in the forms of words which has 
made it necessary to have the science of grammar. 

It is worthy of observation that the foregoing causes of error have be- 
come to a slight degree in our language, and to a considerable degree in 
some foreign languages, established laws that justify the expressions which 
they produce. 

1. Too Many Words. * 2. Too Few Words. 

In general, the fewer the words we use to express our meaning, the bet- 
ter. Many of the most admired and durable expressions in our literature 
are those which tell much in very few words. No one likes to read through 
a large volume to get what might have been told as well in a pamphlet. 
Tautology is one of the worst faults of bad writing, It consists in telling 
the same thing, or nearly the same thing, again and again, in other ways ; 
as, " The dawn is overcast, the morning lowers, and heavily in clouds 



312 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

brings on the day." — Addison. It is generally much easier to find other 
ways of telling the same thing, than to add new thoughts ; and hence it 
very often happens that persons, in order to till up the time or paper, add 
new words or expressions without adding new thoughts : they string to- 
gether synonymous words and phrases just as if they meant to repeat what 
they have learned in some dictionary. We get tired of seeing a person 
always in the same dress , and, as with dress, so is it with thought and lan- 
guage. But while such use or repetition of words as indicates poverty off 
thought or language is disagreeable, it should be remembered that there 
can be emphatic or musical repetition or fullness that is sometimes one of 
the greatest beauties of style ; as, — 

" Must I then leave you ? Mast I needs forego 

So good, so noble, and so true a master ? 

The king shall have my service ; but my prayers 

Forever and forever shall be yours." — Shakespeare. 
" By foreign hands thy dying eyes were closed ; 

By foreign hands thy decent limbs composed ; 

By foreign hands thy humble grave adorned ; 

By strangers honored, and by strangers mourned." — Pope. 
The words most commonly repeated for emphasis are articles, eonjunc 
tions, prepositions, pronouns, and small adjectives or adverbs. A long 
series of terms is sometimes elegantly gathered into groups, and thus a 
compromise is made between ellipsis throughout and fullness throughout; 
as, <l 1 could demonstrate to you that the whole of your political conduct 
has been one continued series of weakness, temerity, and despotism; of 
blundering ignorance and wanton negligence; and of the most notoiious 
servility, incapacity, and corruption." — Chatham. % 

Whenever words merely encumber the sentence, or do not improve its 
clearness and force, they should be omitted ; but great care should be 
taken, in the omission of words, to avoid obscurity, ambiguity, and bad 
syntax, for these arc the chief faults of excessive ellipsis. Hence, when 
the omission of words would obscure the sentence, weaken its force, or be 
attended with impropriety, they should be inserted. 

Much of what is now considered erroneous English is simply old Crg-^ 
lish that was once in fashion and in good repute. 

Our old writers sometimes used, in imitation of the classic languages, 
double comparatives or superlatives and double negatives, for the sake of 
greater effect. Two negatives are still sometimes used so, when one does 
not destroy the effect of the other; as, " I not only never said so, but never 
thought so*" Sometimes two negatives are elegantly used to express an 
affirmation, especially when one of the negatives is a prefix; as, " He is 
not unschooled in the ways of the world" ; i, e., he is shrewd enough. It 



OBSERVATIONS. 313 

is sometimes very difficult to determine whether or or nor should be used. 
When a preceding negative adjective or adverb plainly modifies both con- 
nected parts, or may be preferable ; but when the latter part is but faintly 
affected by the preceding negative, or when the parts are long, nor may be 
preferable. 

A is sometimes elegantly omitted before few and little, to give a negative 
meaning; and inserted, to give a positive meaning; as, " He has few 
friends " ; i.e., almost none. " He has a few friends " ; i. e., some at least 
The phrase kind of a or sort of a is generally improper; though it may 
sometimes be allowable because needed; as, " What kind of paper [the ma- 
terial] have you ? " differs from " What kind of a paper [document] have 
you?" When connected words require different forms of the indefinite 
article, it is seldom necessary to repeat the article for this cause alone. 

Absolute comparisons, without the needed other or else, occur so fre- 
quently in good writers that they are perhaps sometimes allowable by the 
figure synecdoche or hyperbole. 

Objective relative pronouns can be sometimes omitted ; but nominative 
relatives can seldom be omitted with propriety, except in verse. 

It is not necessary to repeat the subject before the second of two con- 
nected verbs that differ in mood and tense, or imply contrast, unless the 
pirts are unusually long, or the contrast is marked and emphatic. " Many 
of them were of good families, and had held commissions in the civil war. 
Their pay was far higher than that of the most favored regiment of our 
time, and would in that age have been thought a respectable provision for the 
son of a country gentleman." — Macaulay. "So large a sum was ex- 
pended, but expended in vain." — Id. 

The omission of the nominatives in hasty business letters, is generally in- 
elegant; for it implies an affectation, on the part of the writer, of being 
exceedingly busy. 

There are some expressions in which to, the sign of the infinitive, should 
be used after bid, dare, feel, make, see, etc. ; as, " My horse bids fair [prom- 
ises] to take the premium." "I dared [challenged] him to bet." "I feel 
it to be my duty." " How could you make out to get along 1" "I can 
not see to write this letter." — See § 482. 

Choice of Words. 

In writers of the last century we frequently find an used before sounded 
k and before u long. An is still preferred before sounded h when the chief 
accent is on the second syllable of the word, for then the h is but faintly 
heard. But when the h is forcibly aspirated, a is sometimes preferred. In 
this country we usually say a hold; but the English generally prefer an 
hotel. " A hotel." — Noah Webster ; " An hotel." — Russell, Kin'/take, etc. 

It is sometimes very difficult to decide whether the adverbial or the ad« 



314 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

jective form of a word should be used. The adjective expresses the quality 
of the subject, and the adverb the manner of the act ; as, " She looks cold n 
[is cold] ; " She looks coldly [in a cold manner] on him." (See p. 175.) 
Sometimes language needs two adverbs from the same word; and then 
one usually takes the regular adverbial form, and the other retains the ad- 
jective form ; as, " The lesson is hard; and I can hard'y learn it, though I 
have been studying hard." We say, " He came there previously/* or we 
choose the adverbial form when the word stands by itself; but when to is 
added, some writers say previously to and some precious to. The analogy 
of contrary to and according to seems to be converting this phrase into a 
preposition of the same class with themselves. The analogy seems to be 
also affecting, though in a less degree, the words agreeable and conformable. 
" I feel \bud? or badly?] about the matter." Analogy is in favor of bad ; 
hut custom is in favor of badly, (See KeiTs Com p. Gram., p. 248.) In 
discussing a subject by numerical divisions, whether we should say first, 
secondly, thirdly, or first, second, third, etc., depends chiefly on whether we 
refer to the verb or to the divisions. " Page twenty-fifth " is correct, and 
•'page twenty-five" is also correct; for twenty-five is here used as a noun, 
which represents page by the figure synecdoche, and is therefore put in 
apposition with page. 

What is taught about relative pronouns in grammars, rests perhaps on 
a sandy foundation ; for there are good English writers who simply apply 
who to persons and ivhich to all other objects, and who use that and as 
simply for euphony, or when who or which would be less appropriate. 

When an antecedent is a figurative word, great care should be taken to 
select the pronoun in accordance with the meaning of that part of the sen- 
tence in which the pronoun stands; as, She was a conspicuous flower, 
whom he had sensibility to love, ambition to attempt, and skill to win." — 
Wordsworth. " Northumberland, thou ladder, by ivhich my cousin Boling- 
broke ascends my throne." — Shakespeare. " A dauntless soul erect, who 
smiled on death." — Thomson. 

We shall arrange our remaining remarks under this head, according to the grammat- 
ical properties as given on page 2. 

Gender. — To a class of persons, comprising both sexes, the mascu- 
line noun is applied, rather than the feminine. " The poets of America" 
may include the poetesses. When I say, " She is the best poetess," I com* 
pare her with female poets only ; but when I say, " She is the best poet" I 
compare her with both male and female poets. It is proper to say, " An 
(iiithoress sat next to me at the table " ; because it may be a part of the 
speaker's wish to specify the sex, and there is no other word in the sentence 
to express it. But it would be hardly improper to say, " She is the author 
of the book " ; because the sex is not important to the assertion, or it is 



OBSERVATIONS. - 315 

sufficiently specified by the pronoun she. So, " She 13 my accuser" is a 
proper expression ; for the word accusercss is uncommon, and is not needed 
to show the sex. 

Our language is defective in not having, in the third person, a singular 
pronoun for the common gender. This often leads to an improper use of 
they, their, etc. In such cases the masculine pronoun is preferred when the 
antecedent is a noun of the common gender, and denotes a person ; and 
both the masculine and the feminine pronoun are used when the antecedent 
comprises both a masculine and a feminine noun. To small children and 
to inferior animals the pronoun it is sometimes applied. 

Person and Number. — In regard to number, writers occasionally 

allow themselves to be governed by the logical sense, or by euphony or 

attraction. 

M In Hawick twinkled many a light, 

Behind him soon they set in night/' — Seott. 

They y in this sentence, is allowable •, because the clauses are not so closely connected 
that the pronoun it would preserve the full sense. 

"Neither history nor tradition furnish such information. " — Robertson. 
" A silk dress or a flowered bonnet were then great rarities." — Flint. 
" Where Leonidas. with his chosen band, were cut off." — Karnes. 
These plurals, though in accordance with the syntax of the Classic languages, are not 
allowable in modern English. 

" A coach and six is in our time never seen except as a part of some 
pageant.'' — Macaulay. " Two thousand a year was a large revenue for a 
barrister." — Id. 

" Earl v m to bed, and early to rise, 
Makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise." — Franklin. 

These singular verbs are probably allowable, because all that the subject denotes is 
taken as but one thing — See p. 144. 

Milton, in imitation of Greek and Latin syntax, frequently uses a singular verb after 
two nominatives joined by and, where, in modern English, a plural verb is required. 

An abstract number may have a singular verb, where a concrete number 
would require a plural verb; as, "Fine from seven \ leaves two"; "Five 
apples [taken] from seven apples \ leave two apples." 

Most nominatives that consist of numbers may be classed with collective 
nouns; and they are about as indefinite in syntax. In addition, the verb 
must of coijrse be plural; in subtraction, division, or proportion, it may be 
singular or plural, according as the number is abstract or concrete. In frac- 
tions and compound numbers that must be read j>lurafly, the verb should, we 
think, be generally plural; though the principle that a plural term some- 
times denotes a single object, or that two or more singular nominatives 
connected by and denote but one person or thing, may occasionally justify 
the use of the singular verb. In multiplication, the prevailing custom is, to 
make the verb plural when the word times is used. — See p. 224. 



316 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



When a plural substantive precedes, some writers use as follow ; but most 
writers prefer as follows, whether the preceding substantive is singular or 
plural. 

" What 's justice to a man, or laws, 
That never comes within their claws." — Hudibras. 
Justice is nearer to 2.9, and laws to their ; hence the difference, and both are proper 
by attraction. Such expressions as one or more persons are also now considered allow- 
able on the same principle. 

We say, "The Old and New Testaments," in stead of "The Old Testa- 
ment and the New Testament"; and on the same principle, "Bancroft's 
and Palfrey's Histories" (Atlantic Monthly), "Glover's, Mason's, and 
Patterson's regiments" (Irving), seem to have been used. But English 
grammars teach that we should say, " Bancroft's and Palfrey's History" 

Such expressions as " A ten-foot pole," " A twenty-ce«< piece," " A five- 
dollar note," etc., are proper , but a hyphen should always be used to con- 
nect the parts. The noun, in such expressions, being used as an adjective, 
loses the properties of a noun. If these singulars should be plural, then it 
would not seem unreasonable to require he to be him or them in the follow- 
ing example : " They brought //e-goats." 

Case. — In regard to the possessive case and kindred forms, there are 
some ambiguities, or shades of meaning, that are worthy of notice. The 
phrase " God's love," for instance, can be so used as to signify cither his 
love toward us or our love to him; and "The doctor's treatment" is 
rather active, while " The treatment of the doctor " is rather passive. 

It is remarkable that a possessive appositive noun does not always re- 
quire the possessive form, while such a pronoun must always have it. 
" Thy Maker's will has placed thee here, • 

A Maker wise and good." — Brown's Grammar. 

The foregoing sentence is correct; but, misled by this grammar or principle, Mrs. 

Sigourney wrote improperly,— 

'• His curse be on him. He, who knoweth [, — his] 
Where the lightnings hide." — Mrs. Sigourney, 
By the figure enallage, the objective case is allowed in a few poetic or 
idiomatic expressions ; as, — 

" Fare thee well, thou first and fairest ! 

Fare thee well, thou best and dearest! " — Burns, 
" Fare thou well " would be so grammatical as to spoil the poetry. 

Voice. — The scarcity of verbal forms in our language has always 
caused some perplexity in regard to the mode of expressing verbs in the 
progressive passive sense. There was at one time a strong tendency to 
adopt the preposition a and the present participle; as, "Jack always liked 
to be present when money was a paying or receiving." — Swift. In the 
writings of Swift are many specimens of this construction ; but the present 
and established practice seems to be what we have taught on pp, 141 and 307. 



OBSERVATIONS. 317 

Mood. — Formerly, the subjunctive mood was extended over all the 
tenses of the indicative mood and the potential; or it was used when simply 
3oubt was implied, as well as when both doubt and futurity affected the 
tense. The blundering and contradictory teachings of grammarians in re- 
gard to this mood have caused the public to discard it almost altogether. 
But there is for this mood a proper and well-established province, which 
we have endeavored to show on pp. 132, 133, 304 ; and if the mood should 
ever be expelled from this field of expression, our language will be the 
poorer for the change. 

Tense. — See pp. from 136 to 160 ; also pp. 306 and 307. 

We sometimes find an obsolescent subjunctive form in good modern 
writers ; as, " If he have given" etc. — Wayland. Such forms are justifi- 
able simply as being remnants or imitations of old style. We sometimes 
meet with a person who prefers some old-fashioned article of dress. 

Comparison. — A word that is not a pure superlative, can some- 
times be used in speaking of two objects only ; as, " A trochee has the first 
syllable accented." And perhaps the superlative degree can be occasion- 
ally applied to one of two when we do not refer to inferior objects, but 
chiefly aim to impress the idea that the object is not exceeded. Since 
there are adjectives that have a fixed or absolute meaning, we are some- 
times at a loss for words that express approximations to this fixed or high 
state of quality. In such cases it seems best to apply the words to the 
partial meaning, and then compare them. " Aristides was the most just of 
the Athenians," is better than "Aristides was the least unjust of the Athe- 
nians " ; for the latter implies that the Athenians were all knaves, and he 
was simply not the worst one. Such expressions as " the most nearly just" 
have sometimes a stiff and pedantic air. 

Position of Words. 

A modifier naturally refers its meaning to the nearest word that is suit- 
able to receive it; and since modifiers are numerous and various, and can 
refer to many different words, to give the best position to the words, phrases, 
and clauses, which are modifiers, becomes one of the chief concerns of every 
writer. Ambiguity, obscurity, and sometimes absurdity, harshness, or 
feebleness, arc the chief faults of bad arrangement of words. 

When a numeral and a cardinal adjective precede a noun, the numeral 
adjective is generally placed before the other,- as, " The jirst two men," 
not " The two first men " ; for there can not be two firsts. When adjectives 
or other modifiers precede their noun, the more accidental or comprehen- 
sive must generally be placed before those which are less so; as, "Me- 
chanics' Bank," "National Mechanics' Bank/' or " Mechanics' National 
Bank." The adjectives all, such, many, what, both, and adjectives preceded 
by too, so, as, or how, usually precede the article when used with it. 



PART VI. 

ORIST^JMEnSTT AND iFINMSH. 



FIGURES. 

667« A Figure is a deviation from the ordinary form, 
construction, or application of words, for the sake of 
brevity, force, or beauty.* 

668. Figures may be divided into three classes : — 

1. Figures of Orthography, which are deviations from the ordinary 
spelling or pronunciation of words. 

2. Figures of Syntax, which are deviations from the ordinary con- 
struction of words. 

3. Figures of Rhetoric, which are deviations from the ordinary mean- 
ing or application of words. 

FIGURES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 

669. The principal figures of orthography are, — 

1. Aphoer'esis, the shortening of a word by taking a 
letter or syllable from the beginning ; as, 'gainst for 
against. 

Ex. — There 's a bliss beyond all that the minstrel hath told. 

A shortened word is thus sometimes made a part of an adjoining word. 

2. Syn'cope, the shortening of a word by taking a 

* The end to be reached is frequently gained indirectly rather than directly. Thus, in 
verse an inferior expression is sometimes allowed for the purpose of fining the greater 
beauty of rhythm or rhyme. 



FIGURES. 319 

letter or syllable from the middle ; as, red'ning for red- 
dening. 

Ex. — O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. 

3. Apoc'opo, the shortening of a word by taking a 
letter or syllable from the end; as, tK for the; Ben for 
Benjamin. 

Ex. — The morn is up again, the dewy mom. 

4. Prosthesis, the lengthening of a word by prefixing 

a syllable. 

Ex. — Far adown the long aisle sacred music is streaming. 

5. Parago'ge, the lengthening of a word by annexing 
a syllable ; as, Johnny for John. 

Ex. — Oft, in the stilly night, ere slumber's chain has bound me. 

Elision is the omission of letters ; ellipsis, the omission of words. 

When a word is lengthened by pronouncing suppressed final ed, the figure 
may be called Dicer' esh; and when a syllable is blended with another in pro- 
nunciation, the figure may be called Synmr' esis. 

6. Tme'sis, the inserting of a word between the parts 
of a compound; as,, "on which side soever" for "on 
whichsoever side." 

Ex. — The century-living crow that caws the live day long. 

FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 
670. The principal figures of syntax are, — 
1. Ellipsis, the omission of words; usually, the omis^ 
sion of such words as must be supplied in parsing. 

In analyzing and parsing, only such words should be supplied as are nece^ 
sary to complete the construction. — See page 214. 

Under the head of ellipsis can probably be included the following figures; 
though in parsing examples under them, it will generally be sufficient simply 
to mention the figure, without supplying words. 

Aposiope'sis, the leaving of something unsaid. 

Ex. — Whom I— but first 't is best the billows to restrain. 

Say, in parsing, that whom is in the objective case •, but, by the figure aposiopesls^ it 
has no governing word expressed. 



320 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Zeugma; the referring of a word to two different 
ones, when in strict syntax it can agree with only one of 
them. 

" In him who is, or him who finds, a, friend" — Pope. Page 146, § 5. 
" All of them knowing, and known by, our coachman" — Dickens, 
" One or more scape-goats." — Irving. Supply scape-goat in parsing. 

Say, in parsing, that friend is used, by the figure zeuyma, as a predicate-nominative 
after is, and also as the object of Jinds. (It seems necessary to extend somewhat the 
ordinary meaning of zeuyma, and we have done so accordingly.) 

2. Ple'onasm, the use of more words than the sense 
or the syntax absolutely requires. * 

" One of the few, the immortal names, that were not born to die" 

Either the same word is repeated, or an equivalent expression is used. 

3. ExiaHage; the use of one part of speech, or of one 
form of a word, for another. 

" Thinks I to myself, I '11 stop." — J. Taylor. So, " Methinks" 
" The swallow sings sweet from her nest in the wail." — Dimond. 
" And the idols are broke in the temple of Baal." — Byron. 
Generally speaking, this figure should not be used when it can be avoided. 

4. Inversion, or Hyper'baton; inverted syntax, or 
the transposition of words, as in verse. 



671 • An Ar'chaism is a word or expression imitative 
of ancient style or usage. 

14 On which thilk wight that has y - gazing been, 
Kens the forthcoming rod — unpleasing sight, I ween" — Shenstone. 

672. Mimicry is the imitation of another person's 

improper use of language. 

Ex. — Mrs. Gilpin. So you must ride on horseback after we. 
Say, in parsing, that the nominative we is used, by mimicry, for the objective us. 

Justice Shallow. Let us examination these men. 
To this figure should be referred all imitations of brogues and dialects. 
The last two figures belong to both figures of orthography and figures of syntax. 



FIGURES. 321 

FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

673. The following are the most important rhetorical 
figures : — 

1. Sim'ile, 7. Antithesis, 13. Euphemism, 

2. Metaphor, 8. Irony, 14. Interrogation, 

3. Allegory, .9. Paralip'sis, 15. Exclamation, 

4. Metonymy, 10. Hyper'bole, 16. Apos'trophe, 

5. Synec'doche, 11. Climax, 17. Vision, 

6. Personification, 12. Allusion, 18. Onomatopoe'ia. 

C74# A Sim'ile is an express comparison. 

Ex. — "The music of Carryl was, like the memory of joys that are 

past, sweet and mournful to the soul." — Osslan. 

A simile is a comparison usually expressed by means of like or as. 

The teacher should read to the class, while he hears the lesson, what is said about each 
of these figures in Kerl's Comprehensive Grammar. , 

675. A Metaphor is an implied comparison. 
Ex. — Life is an isthmus between two eternities. 
A metaphor is a word suitable to one object, applied to another object, on 
account of some resemblance. 

Sometimes a metaphor comprises two or more words ; as, " Sin is a hitter sweet, and 
the Jine colors of the serpent by no means make amends for the poison of his 
sHng. n — South. But when the comparison extends beyond a sentence, the figure be- 
comes an allegory. 

678. An Allegory is a fictitious story about one tiling, 
generally designed to teach some moral or practical wis- 
dom about another. It is continued metaphor. 

See Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, 

The teacher should refer to an allegory In the reading-book. 

To allegory belong parables and fables. 

677. A Metonymy is the name of one object applied to 
a different one, from some other relation than resemblance. 
Ex. — " They have Moses and the prophets" ; i. e., their writings, 

" We drank but one. bottle'* ; i. e., the contents of but one bottle. 
The mo«t common instances of this figure are those in which the cause is 
put for the effect, the effect for the cause, the container for the thing con- 
tained, or the sign for the thing signified. 

14* U 



322 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The transfer of an attribute to a related object may also be called metonymy; 
as, "my auveuturov. ;:ong; " " his weary way; " ^ jovial wine." 

678, A Synecdoche is the name of a part applied to 
the whole, or that of the whole applied to a part. 

As when we say tea, for supper; or c/old, for money. 

Synecdoche is simply the application of a word to more or less, of the same thing, than 
the word sti iutly denotes. 

€79. Personification represents as persons, or as ra- 
tional or living beings, objects that are not such in reality. 
Ex. — " There Honor comes a pilgrim gray." — Collins. 

"When the grammatical properties of a word are changed by personification 
or metonymy, the figure is sometimes cailed Syllepsis: as, *• The ship, with 
her snowy ^iils." *■ Philip went down to the city of Samaria, and preached 
Christ unto them." 

680. Antithesis is the contrasting of different objects, 
actions, qualities, or circumstances. • 

Ex. — Virtue ennobles, and vice debases. 
" They heard the clarion's iron clang, 
The breeze which through the roses sang." — Croly. 

681. Irony is the sneering use of words with a con- 
trary meaning. 

To call a fool a Solomon, or to praise what we mean to disparage, 

is irony. 

' The expression becomes more sarcastic when the speaker seems to adopt the real 
thoughts or feelings of the person attacked. 

682. Paralipsis is the pretended omission or conceal- 
ment of what is thus really suggested and enforced. 

Ex. — " I will not call him villain, for it would be unparliament- 
ary." — G rattan. " Let me not think — Frailty thy name is woman." 
— Shakespeare. 

CSS, Hyperbole is exaggeration. It usually represents 
things as greater or less, better or worse, than they really 
are. 

Ex. — " Here Orpheus sings ; trees, moving to the sound, 

Start from their roots, and Ibnn.a shade around." — Pope. 



FIGURES. 323 

684. Cliraas means ladder. It is a gradual climbing, 
or rise of thought, from things inferior to greater or bet- 
ter. When reversed, it is called anticlimax. 

Ex. — " A Scotch mist becomes a shower; and a shower, a Hood , 
and a flood, a storm \ and a storm, a tempest ; and a tempest, thun- 
der and lightning; and thunder and lightning, heaven-quake and 
earthquake." — Wilson. 

Anticlimax: "Great men, — such as Washington, Adams, Jefferson, Aaron 
Burr, Stephen Arnold-, and ttie worthy friend of my opponent." 

€85. Allusion is the use of an expression that recalls 
incidentally some interesting fact, custom, writing, or 
saying. 

Ex. — '* Hands that the rod of empire might have swayed, 
• Close at my elbow stir their lemonade.'* • — Holmes. 
Parody is a continued allusion or resemblance in style. 

" "T is the last rose of summer left blooming alone ; 
Ail her lovely companions are faded and gone." 
Parody : "'Tis the last golden dollar left shining alone ; 

All its brilliant companions are squandered and gone." 
A Pun is a play on the sound or meanings of a word. 

Ex — "The sutlers," says a newspnper, "are about to be organized into 
a military company. We rejoice to hear it; for we think if they were "trior* 
oughly organized in one body, no enemy could withstand their charges ! " 

688. Euphemism is a softened mode of speech for 
what would be disagreeable or offensive if told in the 
plainest language. 

Cushi did not say to David, "Absalom is killed"; but, "May all 
'the enemies of the king be as that young man is.* 9 

687. Interrogation is a mode of strengthening a state- 
ment by an appeal in the form of question. 

Ex. — Shall we gather strength by irresolution and inaction ? 

688. Exclamation is usually an abrupt or broken 
mode of speech, designed to express more strongly the 
emotions of the speaker. 

Ex. — liow glorious, how majestic, yonder setting sun ! 



324 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

689i Apostrophe is a sudden turning-away, in the 
fullness of emotion, to address some person or thing. 

Ex. — " Death is swallowed up in victory. | Death ! where is 
thy sting ? O Grave ! where is thy victory ? " — Bible. 

693. Vision represents something that is past, future, 
absent, or simply imagined, as if it were really present. 

Ex. — " Soldiers ! from yonder pyramids, forty centuries look 
down upon you ! " — Bonaparte. 

691. Onomatopoeia is such an imitation in the sound 
of the words as may correspond with the sense, or sug- 
gest it. 

" The sound should seem an echo to the sense." — Pope. 

Ex. — " Away they went, pell-mell, hurry-skurry, wild buffalo, 
wild horse, wild huntsman, with clang and clatter, and whoop and 
halloo, that made the forests ring." — Irving, 

To this figure may also be referred such new-coined expressions 
as bamboozle, skedaddle, and circumbendibus. 



Sometimes two or more figures are involved in the same expression ; as, 
" Here the sword and sceptre rust; — 
Earth to earth, and dust to dust" ; metonymy and metaphor. 
In the use of rhetorical figures, there are four very common species of 
error that should be carefully avoided. 

1. Figures should be well-founded or becoming, and more suitable 
than plain language. " The liberties of rising states were shackled by 
paper chains/' — Bancroft. 

The phrase paper chains suggests nothing formidable. 

2. Figures should not be too numerous, nor carried too far. 

3. Figures should not be improperly mixed, or incongruous figures 
should not be made parts of the same picture. 

11 I brklte in my struggling muse in vain, 
That longs to launch into a bolder strain." — Addison. 
That is, his muse is a monster, partly horse and partly ship. 

4. Literal and figurative language should not be mixed. [Jefferson. 
" The colonies were not yet ripe \ to bid adieu to British connection." — 
$3T Many of the meanings of words are but faded figures. 



VERSIFICATION. 325 

VERSIFICATION. 

C92. Versification is the art of making verse. 
C33. Verso is the musical arrangement of words, ao 
cording to some regular accent. 

Also pauses and rhymes are generally used as elements of verse. 

Verse is to prose as dancing is to walking; and the accent in 
verse corresponds to the beat in music. 

The word verse is sometimes applied to a single line of poetry, sometimes to 
a stanza, and sometimes to lines of poetry collectively considered. 

The accent which runs through verse, affords pleasure to the mind by 
the regular pulsations; this pleasure is increased by final and csesural 
pauses, which divide the verse into lines and shorter divisions by agreeable 
suspensions ; these parts or lines arc frequently made further agreeable by 
terminations similar in sound, which are called rhymes; and the pleasure 
of rhyming lines is enhanced by combining them into harmonious groups 
called stanzas. The language itself is colored, vivid, and striking, by being 
the language of passion or imagination as well as of good common sense. 
Such is, in a nutshell, the verse-making art. 

To show the various elements of beauty to the best advantage, verse is 
usually arranged in lines, as in the following specimen : — 
" Know ye the land | where the cypress and myrtle j 

Are emblems of deeds | that are done in their clime; || 
Where the rage of the vulture, the love of the turtle, 

Now melt into sorrow, now madden to crime ? 
Know ye the land of the cedar and vine, 
Where the flowers ever blossom, the beams ever shine V 

69 h Versification is comprised under the following 

heads : — 

1. Poetic Accent and Feet. 

2. Poetic Pauses and Lines. 

3. Rhymes and Stanzas. 

4. Poetic Licenses. 

1. POETIC ACCENT AND FEET. 

C95. Poetic Accent is the accent which divides lines 
of poetry into small parts, called poetic feet. 



326 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Poetic accent passes through lines in four different ways, or rests 
on syllables as shown by the following numbers : — 

Iambic, 2 4 6 8 10 12 

Trochaic. 13 5 7 9 11 

Anapestic. 3 6 9 12 15 18 

Dactylic. 1 4 7 10 13 16 

Iambic: " The curfew tolls the knell of parting day." 

Trochaic : * k Round us roars the tempest louder." 

Anapestic: "At the close of the day, when the hamlet is stfll." 

Dactylic: " Bachelor's hall, — what a queer-looking place it is ! " 

696. A Poetic Foot is a part of a line that consists 
generally of two or three syllables, one of which is ac- 
cented. 

G97. There are four principal feet : — 

1. The Iambus; a foot or two syllables^ accented on 
the second ; as, enroll. 

2. The Trcchoo ; a foot of two syllables, accented on 
the first ; as, gdlden. 

3. The Anapest; a foot of three syllables, accented 
on the last ; as, entertain. 

4. The Dactyl; a foot of three syllables, accented on 
the first ; as, durable. 

6S8. There are three secondary feet : — 

1. The Spondee, a foot of two long or accented syl- 
lables. 

2. The Pyrrhic, a foot of two short or unaccented 
syllables. 

8. The Csesu'ra, a long or accented syllable used as 
one foot. 

Ex. — " Near the lake where drooped the willow 
Long time ago." Spondee. 

11 Of the | low sunset clffiuU, and the \ blue sky." Pyrrhic and Spondee. 

Som rt tim<'S the accent, in iambic verse, to avoid resting on a short syllable, passes to 
the first syllable (if long) of the next foot, making this foot a spondee, and the preceding 
one a pyrrhic. Spondees and pyrrhics are not always produced in this way 5 but they 
are generally best when made on this compensation principle. 



VERSIFICATION. 327 

"Thou wdst that all to me*, love, (Caesura.) 

For which my soul did pine." — Poe. 

« Go'd ! gad ! gad ! gold ! 4 feet > ^ L 

Heavy to get and light to lioldP — Hood. 4 feet ) 

693 9 The secondary feet are sometimes allowed to 
break the regular measure, in order to avoid a tedious 
sameness in the rhythm, or to secure onomatopoeia. 

700» The iambus and the anapest are kindred feet ; and 
hence they are sometimes used promiscuously. 

Ex. — "I come ! I come ! ye have called me long j 

1 come o'er the mountains with li^ht and sdnjr." — Hemans. 

A pleasant rhythm is sometimes produced by throwing an anapest, or even tnro, into 
^ach iambic line. 

701 . The trochee and the dactyl are kindred feet, and 
hence they are sometimes used promiscuously. 
Ex. — Bounding away over hill and valley. 

702i Any word or syllable can be brought under the 

poetic accent, when there is no prevention from quantity 

or word-accent. 

Quantity. — The quantity of a syllable is Its relative quantity of sound, 
or it is the relative time occupied in uttering the syllable. In regard to 
quantity, some syllables arc louj, some are short, and some are xarhihle. 
Ancient verse was made chiefly according to quantity ; but modern verse 
is made chiefly according to accent. 

703i It is sometimes inelegant or improper to make the 
poetic accent rest on a short syllable, especially when 
this syllable stands next to a long or accented one. 

An<1 it is also inelegant to make ths poetic accent conflict with the emphasis of ordinary 
discourse. 

We can not read, " As a friend thank him, and with joy see him." 
But we may read, u See him with joy, and thank him as a friend." 

764o A word of two or more syllables can be admitted 
into the verse only when the poetic accent takes the 
place of the primary or secondary accent of the word. 



328 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. POETIC LINES AND PAUSES* 
70-5. Feet are formed into lines of various length; and 
the lines are then called iambic, trochaic, anapestic, or dac- 
tylic, according to the kind of foot which prevails in them. 
Lines arc also named according to the number of feet composing them. 
Monom'eter, a line of one foot. Peutam'eter, a line of five feet. 
Bim'eter, a line of two feet. Hexam'eter, a line of six feet. 

Trim'eter, a line of three feet. Heptam'eter, a line of seven feet. 

Tetram'eter 9 a line of four feet. Cctom'eter, a line of eight feet. 

Iambic Lines. 

I, iambus *, f, trochee j a, anapest •<, d, dactyl $ c, caesura ; -j-, syllable over. 

li. Refrain. 

2i. The pibroch rang. 

Si. Beyond the ocean blue. 

4L The freighted clouds at anchor lie. 

5/. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. 

6/. When thou art nigh, it seems a new creation roiind. 

7i. The melancholy days are come, the saddest of the year. 

An iambic line of seven feet is sometimes broken, at the end of the fourth foot, into two 
lines. 

7§8o Sometimes a line has a regular number of feet, 
and a part of another foot at the end. Such lines are 
called hypermeters. 

Iambic Hypermeters. 

li-K The losses. 

2/+. To halls of sple'ncfor. 

3/-K From Greenland's icy mountains. 

4/H-. Her heart is like a faded flower. 

5**-K The deer, half-seen, are to the cO'vert winding. 

6/-K I think I will not go with yoii to hear the toasts and speeches. 

Trochaic Lines. 
It. Turning. 

2t. Darkly waving. 

3t. Early birds are sfnging. 

At. Nc'vcr wedding, ever wooing. 

* Strict adherence to truth probably requires that we should consider the poetic pquses 
— the final and the csesural — as producing poetic lines and caesural divisions -, but to 
make the subject easier to the learner, we shall treat of lines first, and then regard them 
simply as having these pauses. 



VERSIFICATION. 329 

5?. See the distant forest dark and waving. 
6t. Up the dewy mountain, He'alth is bounding lightly. 
It. The'n in thee let those rejoice who seek thee se'lf-den)'ing. 
8/. Beams of noon, like burning lances, through the tree-tops flash and 
glisten. 

Trochaic II y perimeters. 

lt-h. Over woods. 

2/4-. Days of sorrow came. 

<3< -K Restless mortals toil for naught. 

4i •*-. Then, methou^ht, I heard a hollow sound. 

bi-\-. Fauns and dryads nightly watch the starry shy. 

Gf-h. Softly blow the e'vening breezes, softly fall the de'ws of night. 

The long or accented syllable which sometimes ends a trochaic or 
dactylic line, is so nearly equivalent to a foot, that it should rather 
be considered a caesura than a mere hypermeter syllable. 

Anapestic Lines. 

la. Far away. 

2a. Far away in the South. 

3a. I am monarch of all I survey. 

4a. Fur away in the South is a beautiful isle. 

Anapestic Hypermeters* 

la -4-. Strains entrancing. 

2a -K He is gone on the mountain. 

3a+. On the knolls the red clover is growing. 

4a-K Through the courts at deep midnight the torches are gleamifla. 

Dactylic Lines, 

2d. Land of the Pilgrim's pride. 
2dt. Come to the mountain of Zion. 
Sdc. Shroudless and tombless they sunk to their rest. 
Sdt. Pause not to dream of the future before us. 

7dc. Kimrod the hunter was mighty in hunting, and famed as the riiler of 
cities of yore. 

Composite Verse. — Sometimes different kinds of feet, or different 
kinds of lines, are combined in the same poem. Such verse is called com* 
posite ; and it is most frequently found in odes and songs. 

See Kerl's Comprehensive Grammar, pp. 329, 330, 331. 



330 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

POETIC PAUSES. 

707. To improve the rhythm or verse, there are two 
pauses ; the final and the ccesu'ral. 

708. The Pinal Pause is a slight pause made at the 

end of each line, even when the grammatical sense does 

not require it. 

Ex. — Ye who have anxiously and fondly watched \ 
Beside a fading friend, unconscious that | | 
The cheek's bright crimson, lovely to the view, 
Like nightshade, with unwholesome beauty bloomed. 

7®9. The Caesural Pause is a slight pause made 
'within the line, most frequently about the middle of it; 
and it belongs chiefly to long lines. 

Sometimes a line has two or more caesura! pauses, one of which is 
commonly greater than the rest. The secondary pause may be 
called a demi-ccesural pause. 

Ex. — "Warms | in the sun, | | refreshes [ in the breeze, 

Glows | in the stars, | | and blossoms | in the trees." — Pope, 
"No sooner had the Almighty ceased, | than all 
The multitude of angels, | with a shout 
Loud | as from numbers without number, | sweet 
As from iTlest voices | uttering joy," etc. — Milton, 
This versification is admirable. The ceesural pause after loud, and that before sweet, 
and the final pause after sweet, make us halt in reading, to enjoy the exquisite luxury of 
the seuse. Long lines can sometimes be divided at the caesurul pause into two lines each 

3, RHYMES AND STANZAS. 

71©. Xlhyme is a similarity of sound between the end- 
ings of poetic lines. 

Also verse that consists of rhyming lines, is frequently called rhyme. 

Sometimes the first half of a line rhymes to the second, and some- 
times rhymes occur in immediate succession. 

711. Rhymes must begin with different letters, and 
end with the same sound, or with nearly the same sound. 



VERSIFICATION. 331 

ithymes that are not exact, yet authorized, are called allowable 
rhymes. 

712» Rhymes may run back into lines one, two, or 
three syllables; and hence they are classified into single 
rhymes, double rhymes, and triple rhymes. 

The rhyming part of each line must always be accented, or begin with an accented syl- 
lable. 

713. Blank Verse is verse without rhyme. 
Most of our blank verse consists of iambic pentameters. 

714. Hetoic Verse is verse that consists of iambic 
pentameters. 

This verse is called so because it is chiefly used in epic poetry, or in poetry that relates 
the exploits of heroes. It allows greater license of versification than any other kind of 
verse, in the way of admitting other kinds of feet, as well as hypermeters. — See Milton 
aud Shakespeare. 

An iambic hexameter is usually called an Alexandrine. 

715. A Couplet consists of two poetic lines that usually 
rhyme together. A triplet, of three. 

718. A Stanza is a combination of three or more 
poetic lines that usually make a distinct chime of rhymes, 
and a regular division of the poem. 

A stanza generally consists of four, six, eight" or nine lines. 
The most common stanzas are the common-metre, the long-metre, 
the short-metre, the elegiac, and the Spenserian. 

Common-3Jetre Stanza. 

4i. When all thy mercies, 6 my God, 

3i. My rising soul surveys-, 

4/. Transported with the view, I 'ra lost 

3i. In wonder, love, and praise. 

Short-Metre Stanza* 

Si. The day is pa.-t and gone ; 

3i. The evening shades appear ; 

4t. O may we all remember well 

3L The night of de'ath draws near. 
15 



332 ENGLISH GRAMMAB. 

Long-Metre Stanza* 
4i. So blue yon winding river flows, 

4«. It seems an outlet from the sky, 

4i. Where, waiting till the west-wind blows, 

4?. The freighted clouds at anchor lie. 

Elegiac Stanza. 

•i ■< ■, - y 

5t. Here rests his head, upon the lap of Earth, 
5t. A youth to Fortune and to Fame unknown 5 

5i. Fair Science frowned not on his humble birth, 
5*. And Melancholy marked him for her own. 

Scanning. 

717. Scanning is the dividing of verse into its feet. 

Each line is usually scanned by itself; but it seems best to scan continue 
ously from one line into another when we can thus avoid irregularities. 
Ex. — 'T is the last rose of summer, 

Left blooming alone ; 4 feet. 

All her lovely companions 

Are faded and gone. 4 feet. 

Sometimes more than one mode of scanning can be applied to the same 

poem ; but that mode should always be preferred which is most simple 

and musical. 

For the various specimens of stanzas, and the modes of scanning them, see Kerl's Com- 
prehensive Grammar. 

"poetic licenses. 

718. A Poetic License is an allowed deviation from 
the correctness of ordinary prose, or from the regular laws 
of versification, in order that the poet may be enabled to 
reach the requirements of verse. 

Poetic licenses are allowed, — 

1. In Spelling. Poets frequently shorten words by the elision of some 
letter or syllable. — See p. 318. 

2. In Pronunciation. Poets sometimes change the accent of a word ; 
and sometimes they adopt some old pronunciation, in order to make a 
rhyme. — See pp. 58, 59. 

3. In the Choice of Words. Poets have gradually gathered and 
manufactured for themselves a little extra vocabulary of words. These 



VERSIFICATION. 333 

consist of antiquated words, foreign words, and common words shortened 
or lengthened. The following are specimens : Ken, wend, ween, trow, rife, 
yore, lone, guerdon, welkin, whilom, albeit, ejjne, brand (sword), sylvan, steed, 
swain, morn, eve, fount, plaint, ope, meed, fane, yon, darksome, stilly, vasty, 
evanish, bcdimmed, be wept. 

4. In the Meanings of Words. Poets sometimes vary the meanings 
of words, or employ a less appropriate word. 

Ex. — " Chill Penury repressed their noble rage." — Gray. (For zeal) 

A licenss in regard to the meaning or pronunciation of a word is always a blemish, 
rather than a beauty. 

5. In Idioms. Poets sometimes use uncommon native idioms, and 
frequently borrow idioms from foreign languages. 

Ex. — " Who would not sing for Lycidas? he knew 

Himself to sing, and build the lofty rhyme." — See p. 223. 

6. In Syntax. Violent inversion. Violent ellipsis. Violations of the 
minor rules or principles of grammar. In general, any inversion or ellipsis 
is allowable that will preserve the sense. 

Omission of Article. " The why is plain as A way to A parish church." 
Omission of Pronoun. " It was a tall young oysterman A lived by the river- 
side. 1 ' — Holmes. 
(Omission of //.) M Suffice A , to-night, these orders to obey." 
Omission of Verb. " Sweet A the pleasure, rich A the treasure." (is) 
Omission of Principal Verb. *' Angels could A no more." (do) 
Object before its Verb. " Him well I knew." 
Subject after the. Verb. " Echo the mountains round." 
Auxiliary after Principal Verb. M Nestled at its roots is beauty." 
Adjective after its .Noun. " Violets blue and daisies white." 
Predicate Adjective before its Verb. " Purple grows the primrose pale." 
Pronoun before Antecedent. " Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath." 
, Relative Clause severed from Antecedent. u From things too low that lie." 
(Inelegant.) 
Adverb between to and the rest of the Infinitive. " To sloivly trace the forest's 

shady scenes." 
Preposition after its Object. " Birds sang the leafy dells tvithin." 
Adjuncts, participial phrases, infinitive phrases, and adjective phrases, are 

frequently transposed. 
St If added to a Noun. " Bewept till Pity's se^be dead." 
Pleonastic Pronoun added to its Antecedent. " My banks they are furnished 

with bees." 
Simple Pronoun for Compound. "I laid me [myself] down on a green bank." 
Adjective used for Adverb. u So sweet she sung." (sweetly) 
Adjective for Noun. M O'er the vast abrupt." 
Intransitive Verb made Transitive. *' To meditate the blue profound." 



334 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Past Tense for Perfect Participle. " The idols are broke." — Byron. 

P'irst or Third Person Imperative in stead of Let. " Turn we to survey,* etc. 

Or — or, no) nor, for either — or, neither — nor. "Nor in sheet wor in 

shroud we wound him." 

7. In Figures. Poetic style abounds in figures, and is frequently set 
all aglow by the creative power of the imagination ; as, " The native hue 
of resolution is sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought." — Shah. 

8. In Versification. Variations in the position of the poetic accent, 
or in the number of unaccented syllables, are allowable where the chieJ 
poetic pauses occur, — the final and the eaesural. 

" Ye've trailed me through the forest; | ye 've trailed me o'er the stream; 

And struggling through the everglade | your bristling bayonets gl£am." 

Observe that forest makes here a syllable in excess ; but the Irregularity, occurring at 
the caesural pause, is little noticed. It is just so in music : variations or extra flourishes 
can frequently be made where pauses occur. A distinguished poet, in speaking of li- 
censes in versification, says, "To prevent metrical harmony from degenerating into mo- 
notony, occasional roughness must be interposed. The rivulet is made musical by 
obstructions in its channel." 

Iambic or anapestic lines sometimes end with one or two extra unac- 
cented syllables. — See Rogers's Ginevra. 

Iambic lines may occasionally begin with a trochee, a dactyl, or a 
spondee ; or admit a trochee, a spondee, or an anapest within, especially 
where the caesural pauses occur. 

Ex. — " Bursts the | wild cry | of terror and dismay." •— Campbell. 
" Liberal, not lavish, is kind Nature's hand." — Beattie. 
" Weep, weep, and rend your hair for those who never shall return." 
'* Of goodliest trees \ londen with fairest 'fruit." — Milton. 
" And many a youth and mat!?/ a maid " — Id. 
" With Heavens arlil \ lery frauyht, come rattling on." — Id. 
It is generally better to contract, an excess of short syllables by synaeresis, or by hasty 
pronunciation, than to reject any of them by elision. 

Anapestic lines may occasionally beirin with an iambus or a spondee ; 
or admit a spondee or an iambus within, especially where the caesural 
pause occurs. 

Ex. — " The poplars are felled, | farewell to the shade, 

And the whispering sounds of the cool colonnade." — Cowptr. 

UTTERANCE. 

Utterance comprises, — 1. Articulation; 2. Degree of Loudness; 
3. Degree of llapidity; 4. Inflections; 5. Tones; 6. Emphasis; 
7. Pauses. 

1. Good articulation requires the words to be uttered with their 
proper sound, fully in all their syllables, and distinctly from one an- 



UTTERANCE. 335 

other. It is opposed to mumbling, mouthing, mincing, muttering, 
slurring, drawling, clipping, lisping, hesitating, stammering, miscall- 
ing, and recalling. 

" Words should drop from the lips as beautiful coins newly issued from the 
mint, — deeply and accurately impressed, perfectly finished, neatly struck by 
the proper organs, distinct, sharp, in due succession, and of due weight." — - 

A as' in. 

2. and 3. The degree of loudness or rapidity must depend on the 
speaker, the hearer, the discourse, the place, or other circumstances. 
Scarcely any thing else is so disagreeable as utterance too rapid, 
low, and jumbled to be intelligible, and rather suggesting that the 
speaker is ashamed to let others know what he is saying. 

4. Inflections refer to the passage of the voice from one key or 
pitch to another. There are three: the rising inflection, which im- 
plies elevation of the voice ; the falling inflection, which implies a 
sinking of the voice ; and the circumflex, which combines the other 
two. "Was it you, or lie?** " Madam, you have my father much 
offended." 

5. Tones are voice as modulated by feeling. They should be 
adapted to the general discourse, and also to its distinct sentiments. 
Tones aim to awaken, by sympathy, the intended emotions in the 
hearer. 

" In exordiums, the voice should be low, yet clear: in narrations, distinct; 
in reasoning i slow; in persuasions, strong: it should thunder in anger, soften 
in sorrow, tremble in fear, and melt in love.'" — Hiley. 

6. Emphasis is an elevation of the voice on some words, word, or 
part of a word, by which the meaning is brought out more precisely 
or forcibly. Emphasis, properly used, adds greatly to the vigor of 
discourse. 

Emphasis relates to words ; and accent, to syllables. 

7. Pauses are of three kinds : sentential or grammatical pauses, 
which show the grammatical sense ; rhetorical pauses, which are used 
for emphasis, or for effect on the hearer; and harmonic or metrical 
pauses, which are used in poetry. 

The pauses are relative rather than absolute. The semicolon requires a 
pause double that of the comma : the colon, double that of the semicolon : and 
the period, double that of the colon, and sometimes even longer. Most of the 
other points require pauses that depend chiefly on the sense. Grave or solemn 
discourse requires longer pauses than that which is lively and spirited. 



336 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PUNCTUATION. 

719. Punctuation treats of the points or marks used 
in writing and printing. 

Punctuation shows the joints or interruptions in the flow of sentences, and helps to 
bring out the meaning to better advantage. It is based almost wholly on grammiitical 
sense, and is seldom influenced by delivery. 

The principal marks of this kind are the following : — 

• The Period j which denotes the longest pause or a full stop. 
2 The Colon ; which denotes the next shorter pause. 

; The Semicolon; which denotes the next shorter pause. 
, The Comma ; which denotes the shortest pause. 
1 The Interrogation-Point ; which is placed after every direct question. 
! The Exclamation-Point 3 which denotes great surprise, joy, or other 
emotion. 
Hence it is generally placed after interjections or unusually earnest addresses. 

— The Dash; which denotes emphasis or abruptness. 

( ) The Curves ; which enclose some explanation or remark that can be 

omitted. 
j | The Brackets ; which enclose some correction or explanation that is 

generally inserted by another person. 
** " The Quotation-Maries ; which enclose words taken from another 

person. 
4 ' " Single Quotation-Marks enclose f a quotation within a quotation.'" 

When a piece is quoted in paragraphs, quotation-marks are placed at the beginning of 
each paragraph, and only at the end of the last paragraph. 

' The Apostrophe ; which denotes possession, or the omission of some 

letter or letters. P<<ge 52. 
■ The Hyphen ; which joins the parts of most compound words, and is 

placed at the end of a line when a part of a word is carried to 

the next line. 
' The Acute Accent; which marks stress of voice. 
x The Grave Accent; which shows a sinking of the voice, or brings out 

a syllable. 

* or v The Circumflex Accent; which is a union of the other two ac- 

cents. It sometimes denotes an unusual or long sound given 
to a vowel, as in tete-a-tete. 

- The Macron ; which marks a long sound, as in live. 

v The Breve; which marks a short sound, as in line. [Menelaus. 

•• The Direr'esis ; which separates two vowels into two syllables, as in 
c The Cedil'la; which is a French mark joined to the lower part of c, 
to give this letter the sound of s, as in facade. 



PUNCTUATION. 337 

ft The Til'de ; which is a Spanish mark, placed over n, to annex to it 

the sound of#; as in carion, a ravine. 
A The Caret ; which is used in writing, to show where words or letters 

fare to be inserted. 
The Brace ; which serves to connect parts. 
\ The Section ; which is sometimes used to mark the small divisions of 

a book. 
% The Paragraph ; which shows where a new subject begins, or denotes 

a paragraph. 
*, t, % The Star, Dagger, and Doable Dagger ; which are used as 
marks of reference. Letters or figures are sometimes used for 
the same purpose. 

* * *, , or Stars, Double Dash, or Periods ; which denote 

omission or suppression. 

" or ,, The Ditto; a mark used in stead of repeating the word or ex- 
pression above it. 

055** The Hand ; which directs special attention to something. 

*%& The Asterism, or Three Stars ; a mark sometimes placed before a 
note that has a general reference. 

• ••••••• Leaders 5 which are periods that lead the eye from one part to 

another over a blank space, as in indexes. 

The Underscore ; which is a line drawn under words in writ- 
ing, that are to be printed in Italics or capitals. 
Also various marks are used to show the sounds of letters as in Webster's or Worcester's 

Dictionary. 

PERIOD. 

720. The Period is put at the end of every word, 
phrase, or sentence, complete by itself, and not interroga- 
tive or exclamatory ; also after abbreviations. 

Ex. — John W. Ringgold, Esq., addressed the assembty. 

The abbreviating period supersedes no point except itself. 

Exceptions. — Such abbreviations as Tom, Ben, and percent do not take the 
abbreviating period, for they have themselves become words ; and such expressions as 
1st, 2i, lily, Mh, etc., do not take the abbreviating period, for they are not so much ab- 
breviations as they are cardinal numerals made ordinal. 

Other Uses, — To separate decimals from whole numbers ; as, % 5.055. 4- . After 
enumerating figures or letters \ as, " I have two good reasons : 1. I can not give my at* 
tention to the business ; 2. I have no money to invest in it." 

COLON. 

721. The Colon is used, — 

1. As an intermediate point between the semicolon and 
the period. 



838 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Ex. — Powers depart, 

Possessions vanish, and opinions change ; 
And passions hold a fluctuating seat : 
But, by the storms of circumstance unshaken, 
And subject neither* to eclipse nor wane, 
Duty exists. 

2. After words that promise a series or statement, ot 
something important. 

That is, after a statement that ends with as follows, the following, thus, these, 
or other words suggestive of the same meaning; also generally after a formal 
address that begins a discourse or letter. 

3. Before an important remark added to a sentence, 
especially when it sums up the sentence, or presents the 
meaning in another form. 

Ex. — The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, 

And all that beauty, all that wealth, e'er gave, 
Await alike the inevitable hour: 

The paths of glory lead but to the grave. 
The colon, iD this sense, is frequently used in stead of a semicolon and conjunction. 

SEMICOLON. 

722, The Semicolon is used, — 

1. To separate parts that have the comma, or parts 
that require a point greater than the comma and less 
than the colon. 

Ex. — Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull. 

Obs. — Hence the semicolon is frequently placed before and, but, for, though, 
yet, nor, nay, hence, therefore, or a similar connective, when this unites two 
clauses that are rather long, and make but one sentence; and it is also fre- 
quently placed before an appositive phrase that is subdivided by the comma. 

2. To separate the parts of a loose series. 

Ex. — Every thing has its time to flourish; every thing grow? 
old ; every thing passes away. 

Such a series may consist of clauses, subjects, predicates, or modifiers. 



PUNCTUATION. 839 

COMMA. 
Serial 723, The Comma is used, — 

1. To separate the terms of a closely related 
series, or two such terms when the connective is omitted. 
Ex. — ■ Hedges, groves, orchards, and gardens, were in bloom. 

It Mas a dark, desolate region. 
Our captain then went to the camp, called upon the officer in 
command, and informed him who we were, whence we had come, 
and whither we intended to go. 

2. To separate terms that are contrasted or otherwise 
distinguished, and terms of which a part in one might 
be referred improperly to the other. 
Ex. — He is poor, but honest. 

Now a peal of gunpowder was heard, and another, and another. 
The troops landed, and killed a hundred Indians. 

"The troops lauded and killed a hundred Indians," has a different meaning. 

Obs. — When a term relates to each of two or more separated terms, it 
must generally be set off to show its common dependence on them all; as, 
44 The water "was as bright and pure, and seemed as precious, as liquid dia- 
monds." " The classics have been the models, I might almost say the masters, 
of composition and thouyht in all ayes." 

Parenthet- 3. To set off a word, phrase, or clause, that is 

ar s * parenthetic, or that comes between other parts 
and breaks their connection. 
Ex. — You will then, however, be in no better condition. 

Moral culture, especially in youth, is of the greatest importance. 

They set out early, and, before the dawn of day, reached the place. 

Columbus, who teas a Genoese, discovered America. 

Modifying 4. To set off a modifying word, phrase, or 

Erases c ' ause ' tnat * s not closely connected with what 

and it modifies, or that is removed from it by in- 

Clanses. 

version. 

This is a very comprehensive rule, and partially includes the preceding rule. 

Ex. — "In a central region, midway on the continent, though 
somewhat nearer the Pacific than the Atlantic ocean, at an elevation 



340 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

of nearly seven thousand five hundred feet, lies the remarkable ral- 
ley of Mexico, encircled by a colossal rampart of the hardest rocks, 
and forming a circumference of about sixty-seven leagues, with a sky 
of the deepest blue, a serene atmosphere, and a magnificent land- 
scape." — Prescott. (Lies where ? What kind of valley ?) 

Obs. — Hence, also, an appositive word or phrase that is parenthetic rather 
than restrictive, or that produces a separate impression on the mind, is gen- 
erally set off by the comma; as, "The greatest Roman orator, Cicero, was 
distinguished for his patriotism." u Such was Tecumseh, the celebrated In- 
dian warrior." 

Independ- 5. To set off words or phrases used indepen- 
dently or absolutely. 

Ex. — This book, Mary, is yours. 0, yes, sir, I do know. 
Shame being lost, all virtue is lost. — See Note V. 

Subject 6. To separate the predicate from its subject, 
Predicate, when the subject is very long, has a clause, or 
consists of punctuated parts. 

Ex. — That one bad example spoils many good precepts, is true. 
He who falls in love with himself, will have few rivals. 
Neither time nor distance, neither weal nor woe, can separate us. 

Obs. 1. — A predicate consisting of two parts that are rather long, or 
equivalent to two clauses, generally needs a comma between them; as, " The 
prairies of Iowa are covered with a rich coat of grass, and not unfrequently 
spotted with hazel thickets." 

Obs. 2. — A clause or long infinitive phrase, that is used in the sense of a 
predicate-nominative, is generally set off by the comma; as, "The unani- 
mous decision of this little party now was, that a desperate effort should be 
made to reach the ship again before the approach of night." 

Clauses. 7. To separate clauses that are neither very 
closely nor very loosely connected. 
Ex. — There mountains rise, and circling oceans flow. 

If Homer was the greater genius, Virgil was the better artist. 
We next went to London, which is the largest city in the world. 

No Point. 8. Short simple sentences or clauses seldom 
require a point within them ; and phrases or clauses that 
stand in close connection with that on which they depend, 
seldom require a point before them. 



PUNCTUATION. 341 

Ex. — " And the deep-pealing organ rolled 

Contrition from its lips of gold." — Funeral of Lincoln, 
" Tell me when it was that you saw him after he returned." 

Otlier Uses. — The comma is generally placed between a word and its repetition ; 
as, u Sweet, sweet home ! ?1 It is placed after a surname when this is put before the 
given name 5 as, u Tyler, George \V. It is used to separate numbers into periods *, as, 
a Population of the United States," 31,443,790. And it is sometimes used to supply the 
place of an omitted /erb or conjunction •, as, u Indolence produces poverty \ and poverty, 
misery." 

INTERROGATION- POINT. 

724. The Interrogation-Point is placed after every 
complete direct question, whether it forms a complete 
sentence or only a part of a sentence. 

Ex. — Shall we never have any rest ! 

What have you to say, Charles 1 for I am waiting. 

Will you go \ " said he, " or will you stay ? " 
Is my name Talbot V and am I your son 1 and shall I fly T 
Which are the interjections of joy ! — of grief 1 — of wonder I 

When 1 sentence consists of interrogative parts, it is sometimes very difficult to decide 
whether only the comma or semicolon should be used within the sentence, and the inter- 
rogation-point at -he end, or whether the interrogatiou-point should be used after each 
interrogative part. The following direction may afford some assistance in doubtful cases. 

Obs. 1. — When each of the interrogative parts requires a distinct answer, 
or when the interrogative nature of the parts is not sufficiently obvious with- 
out the point, the interrogation-point is placed after each of the parts. (See 
above.) But when only one answer is needed, or when the question is not 
complete before the end is reached, the comma or semicolon is used within 
the sentence, and the interrogation-point at the end; as, u Will you go, or 
stay? " " Which is more, — six inches square or six square inches? " 

Obs. 2. — A question that is merely mentioned, and not asked, is called 
indirect, and does not admit the interrogation-point after it; as, "He asked 
me, ' Why do you weept ' '" Direct. " He asked me why I wept." Indirect. 

Hence the following sentence from Dr. Johnson is punctuated incorrectly : " When 
Diog'enes was asked what wine he liked best ? he answered, That which is drunk at the 
expense of others." Corrected : " When Diogenes was asked what wine he liked best, 
he answered," etc. 

EXCLAMATION-POINT. 

725. The Exclamation-Point is placed after a word, 
phrase, clause, or sentence, that indicates great surprise, 
grief, joy, or other emotion in the speaker. 

Ex. — O home ! magical, all-powerful home ! how strong musfc 
have been thy influence, when thy faintest memory could make these 
bronzed heroes of a thousand battles weep like children ! 



342 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Obs. 1. — The exclamation-point is frequently placed after interjections ; as, 
" Fie ! such a man ! " 

Obs. 2. — The exclamation-point is placed after unusually emotional or 
earnest addresses; as, " Absalom, Absalom! my son, my son! " 

Obs. 3» — The exclamation-point is sometimes repeated, for greater effect; 
as, " Selling off below cost ! ! great sacrifices ! ! ! " 

Obs. 4. — The interrogation or exclamation-point is sometimes used sneer- 
ingly to express the disbelief of the speaker; as, u The measures which he 
introduced to Congress, and which ought to have been carried by overwhelm- 
ing majorities (?), proved him to have been in every sense a great states- 
man (!)." 

A sentence that is interrogative in form but exclamatory in sense, is followed by the 
exclamation-point , as, " What business could the honest man have in my room ! * — Shak. 

DASH. 
726. The Dash is used, — 

1. To show omission caused by interruption, 

Ex. — u Here lies the great — " False marble ! wher^ 

2. To show emphasis or suppressed feeling, gf to show 
an unexpected turn in thought or style. 

Ex. — The pulse fluttered — stopped — went on — - throbbed — 
stopped again — moved — stopped. 

This world, 't is true, was made for Csesar — but for Titus too. 

3. To set off a parenthesis, especially when emphatic, 
or when there are other points within it. 

Ex* — He was dressed — and, indeed, so were they nearly all — 
in coarse homespun. 

If the separated parts require a point between them, this point is usually placed before 
each dash. 

4. Before echoes, or where that is or namely is under- 
stood. 

Ex. — They were governed by the worst passions, — malice and 
revenge. 

Other Uses. — The dash is generally used after side-heads, and also before author- 
ities when in the same line with the end of the paragraph. It is sometimes added to the 
common points to lengthen the pause or supply the want of an intermediate point, to 
show emphasis, or to mark transition. In dialogue that is not paragraphed, it is now 
commonly used when the speakers' names are omitted. It is generally used in composite 
headings, as in newspapers. It is often used where a line is broken off, and the subject is 
resumed in the next line. It is sometimes used to show omission of letters or figures. And 
it is often used at the left of newspaper extracts, to show that they are such, or as a more 
m»»df»«t request to notice than the o°. (The teacher should explain what is meant. — ? 
fc.e f&erl's Comprehensive Grammar.) 



PUNCTUATION. 343 

CURVES. 
727t The Curves are used to enclose some incidental 
remark or explanation that breaks the regular construc- 
tion of the sentence, and can be omitted without injuring 
the grammatical sense. What is enclosed, is properly 
called a parenthesis. 

Ex. — " OrlJwepy, a word derived from the Greek ortlios (correct) 
and epo (I speak), signifies the right utterance of words." — Sargent. 
u Know then this truth (enough for man to know) : 
Virtue alone is happiness below." — Pope. 

Obs. — If the parts separated by the parenthesis require a point between 
them, this point is frequently phiced before each curve; sometimes it is placed 
only after the latter curve, especially when the parenthesis is more closely re- 
lated to the first part than to the second; and it is placed only before the first 
curve when the parenthesis requires a different point at its end, which point 
is then placed before the latter curve. The parenthesis, within, is punctuated 
as if it stood alone. 

Ex. — "I gave (and who would not have given?) my last dollar." 

" The Frenchman, first in literary fame, 
(Mention him, if you please. Voltaire ? — The same.) 
With spirit, genius, eloquence, supplied, 

Lived long, wrote much, laughed heartily, and died." — Ccnvper. 
" At the opening of a new year it is pleasant — (tUng-a-ling-a-ling, rings the 
front-door bell; and Bridget breaks upon our privacy with, ' Plase, Sir, it's 
the butcher's boy with the bill.') — it is pleasant — (tling-a ling: 'Plase, 
Sir, it's the baker's bill.') — it is pleasant, we say, to dwell upon the delight- 
ful memories of the past, — {tling-a-ling-a ding-a-ling : 'Plase, Sir, it's the 
milliner's girl left mistress's bill ! ' ) — and — and — What ? " Harper's Weekly. 

BRACKETS. 

728 # The Brackets are properly used to enclose what 

one person puts into the writings of another. 

Explanation: " Yours [the British] is a nation of great resources," etc. 
Correction : " Do you know if [whether] he is at home ? " 
Omission: " Abbotsford, May 12th, [1820]." 

729# The writer himself may sometimes use the brack- 
ets to enclose a detached explanation or remark, or some 
digression or apparent interpolation. 



344 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Ex. — "Dismission (-mish'-un), n. [Lat. dismissio.] " — N. Webster 
n I never liked him, never, in my days ! " 
I" O, yes ! you did/' said Ellen with a sob.] 
" There always was a something in his ways " — 
[" So sweet — so kind," said Ellen with a throb] — Hood, 

HYPHEN. 
733. The Hyphen is used, — 

1. At the close of a syllable that ends a line, when the 
remaining syllable or syllables of the word must be car- 
ried to the next line. 

2. To join the parts of most compound words. 

Ex. — " There is pretty, ten-year-old, rosy-cheeked, golden-haired 
Mary." — Wilson* 

Compound Worlds. 

731. A phrase is generally made a compound word 
when it expresses a complex idea rather than two or 
more distinct ideas, when it is used as one adjective, 
when it has become the common name of an object, or 
when it differs in meaning from that of the separated 
words. 

Ex. — The tree-and-cloud-shadowed river ; a ten-dollar note ; hum- 
ming-bird, honeysuckle, apple-orchard ; the live-oaks of Texas. 

" Time tutored age and love-exalted youth " is very different from " Time tutored 
age, and love exalted youth " To-night has not the meaning of to and night. A pa- 
per-mill is not made of paper, ncr is a tin-peddler made of tin. boston-Neck Meat" 
Market is a more definite expression than " Boston Neck Meat Market." — See p. 56. 

Obs. 1. — Phrases in which the words are separately significant, are usually 
not compounded ; as, " brick wall," " gold cup." Phrases made proper names, 
-when sufficient^ distinguished by having each principal word commenced 
with a capital letter, are usually not compounded; as, "Union Square" 
"Baffin's Bay." Idiomatic phrases are usually not compounded; as, to and 
fro, by and by. Cardinal numerals are compounded from twenty to hundred, 
as twenty-one ; but not above, as "Jive hundred and twenty dollars." 

Can not and in stead of have as good right to separation as may not and in lieu of. 

Obs. 2. — A part common to two or more consecutive compounds, should 
either be left separate, or be made a part of each. 

Ex. — "Riding and dancing schools;" or, "Riding-schools and dancing- 
schools;" not, "Riding and dancing-schools," nor, "Riding- and danci^' 
sohools." " Six and seventeen " = 23 ; " sixteen and seventeen " w S3. 



PUNCTUATION. 345 

Hyphened. 

732. A compound word is generally hyphened when it 
is* first formed, when it has been but little used, when its 
parts are rather long, when each part retains its own ac- 
cent, when some letter of one part might be improperly 
referred to the other part, or when the parts do not 
coalesce as smoothly as syllables of one word. 

Ex. — Zephyr-haunted, festal-sounding, knitting-needle, ant-hill, 

red-hot. 

Unhyphened. 

733. A compound word is generally not hyphened 
when it has been long or much used, and when its parts 
are short or coalesce as smoothly as syllables of one word 
under one chief accent. 

See §156. Most compound words that are used as adverbs, prepositions, 
or conjunctions, are not hyphened; and prefixes are very seldom set off from 
the remainder of the word by a hyphen. A hyphen should be placed after a 
prefix, when two vowels come together that might be mistaken for a diph- 
thong; as, re-elect. 

UNDERSCORE. 

734, The Undsrscore is a line drawn under words in 
writing, that are to be printed in Italics or capitals. 

Onejine is drawn under a written word, to denote slanting or Italic 
letters ; tw o lines are drawn under, to denote small capitals ; and 
thr ee li nes, to denote CAPITALS. 

735, Italic letters, and sometimes small capitals, are 

Used for emphasis or distinction. 

Ex. — " Here / reign king, and, to enrage thee more, thy king and 
lord." — Milton. 

1. Italics are generally used to distinguish foreign 
words, and also common words when we speak of thep? 
merely as being words. 

Ex. — " He was secretary pro tempore" 
" Secretary is a common noun." 



346 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Italics are frequently used to distinguish the names 
of boats, ships, newspapers, and magazines. 
Ex. — " The Neptune sailed yesterday." 

" This article appeared in the Atlantic Monthly" 

In the common version of the Bible, Italics show what words were supplied by the 
translators. 

D^ 3 * For exercises in punctuation, let the reading-books be used. The 
pupil may give rules for the points which he finds; and he may also be re- 
quired to capitalize and punctuate paragraphs transcribed without capitals 
or points. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Poetry. — Poetry, in its highest perfection, is thought, feeling, im- 
agery, and music, expressed in language. It should possess the accuracy, 
the solid sense, and the other good qualities of good prose ; and all devia- 
tions should be such as tend to make it poetry, or to elevate it above prose. 
Care should always be taken to select that mode of versification which ac- 
cords best with the spirit of the intended poem ; and when a certain stanza, 
or a certain mode of versification, has been adopted, there can seldom bo 
allowed, throughout the same poem, any departure from it. Regularity in 
versification is one of the chief beauties of poetry ; and deviations arc 
allowable only when they would not be noticed, or when they serve to 
produce a better harmony than unvaried regularity could afford. 

Punctuation. — The punctuation of standard English literature, as 
well as of our newspapers and other journals, is one of the most chaotic 
subjects that ever perplexed investigation. As an art, punctuation is one 
of the nicest; and long experience is needed to secure a reliable amount 
of skill. That most people know so little of this art, is because they are 
too ignorant of grammar, of the construction of sentences, and of the nice- 
ties of syntax and thought; for without a thorough knowledge of these 
things, rules of grammar are unavailable, or can not strike root in the 
mind. So far as there can be a difference of opinion in regard to the 
meaning of what is written, there will always be room for diversity of 
punctuation ; but punctuation, as a science, can never rest on any firm 
basis except the principles of grammatical " Analysis." 

There are two modes of punctuating, called close punctuation and fre.f> 
punctuation. The former is the older system, and it consists in the use of 
many points ; the latter is the later system, and it consists in the use of 
but few points. Close Punctuation : " To carve for others, is, to starve 
yourself/' — O. Brown. " So that the term, language, now signifies, any 
series," etc — Id. In free punctuation, the foregoing commas would be 






OBSERVATIONS. 347 

omitted; as, "To carve for others is to starve yourself." " So that the 
term language now signifies any series," etc. The two modes of punctuation 
differ chiefly in regard to the comma. Free punctuation is preferred by the 
best printers ; and it has become so far established that much of the punctu- 
ation now taught in most of the school grammars is rather obsolete. 

In punctuation, the elements of sentences are clauses, phrases, and 
words ; and the kinds of sense which must be regarded, are serial sense, 
moditied sense, and broken sense. The points mostly used are the comma 
and the semicolon. 

Gimple Sentences. — Most printers now hold the opinion that no 
comma should be inserted between the subject and the predicate, and that 
Mr. Murray took the wrong end of the principle for his rule. A comma 
may be inserted between a series of nominatives and their predicate, to 
show the common dependence of the predicate on all the nominatives ; 
though many printers omit the comma when a conjunction stands before 
the last nominative. To show whether a dubious word or phrase belongs 
to the subject or the predicate, a comma must be inserted ; and sometimes 
a comma is admissible after a long subject. When the subject or the 
predicate consists of two parts that suggest the idea of two clauses, the 
parts are separated ; as, " He, as well as I, was deceived." "Overhead 
the branches arch, and make a pleasant bower.'' 7 An object or a predicate- 
nominative, closely depending on its verb, is not set off. Any phrase that 
makes a separate impression on the mind, rather than combines with some 
other part to make a whole with it, must be set off by the comma; as, 
" And then the flowers, so modest, so lovely, of such exquisite hue, en- 
ameled in the grass, sparkling amidst it, 'a starry multitude/ underneath 
such awful mountains and icy precipices — how beautiful ! " Any phrase 
that is equivalent to a clause which would require a point, is set off as if it 
were the clause. "When an infinitive phrase, a participial phrase, or an 
adjective phrase, that makes a part of the predicate, stands before the sub- 
ject, it is set off by the comma ; as, " To be rightly estimated, he must be 
judged by the times in which he lived." When such a phrase is placed be- 
tween the nominative and the verb, and is parenthetic rather than restric- 
tive, it is also set off. When it holds its proper syntactical position, it is 
not set off by the comma if it stands in close connection with the word on 
which it depends. But if somewhat removed from it, it is set off. An 
emphatic-adjunct, at the beginning of a sentence, is set off by the comma. 
A forcibly parenthetic adjunct must also be set off. An adjunct that fol- 
lows another, but depends on a preceding word, must generally be set oif 
by the comma. An adjunct that is very long, or that has the force of a 
clause, must generally be set off by the comma. Two words in close ap- 
position, especially when they consist of a pronoun and a noun, are not 



348 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

separated by the comma. When or annexes an appositive or explanatory 
noun, a comma is inserted ; as, " The skull, or cranium" But when or joins 
equivalent adjectives or adverbs, they are not separated ; as, " In a care/ess 
or indifferent manner." A point is seldom used between the word price 
and the number; though the strict sense requires the comma. A term 
immediately preceded by two or more others that govern or qualify it, is 
generally not set off by the comma; as, <l Lend, lend your wings." "It 
was a bright, lovely day." But in other cases, and when there is something 
of suspense or contrast, the part is set off; as, " The liberties, the rights, 
of our citizens" " The former are called voluntary, and the latter involun- 
tary, muscles." Parts that are compared or slightly contrasted, and de- 
pend closely on something after them, are seldom separated ; as, " It is a 
small but thrifty tree." But an intermediate phrase that begins with if not, 
is always set off. When two or more adjoining modifiers are parenthetic, 
the less coalcsecnt one is set off; as, "And her eyes, on all my motions, with 
a mute observance hung." A word is frequently set off by the comma, or 
not set off, according as it has the sense of a conjunction or that of an ad- 
verb. " You did not see him, then?" "You did not sec him then?" 
" However, 1 will not shrink, however great the responsibility may be." The 
pointing sometimes depends on how smoothly the words of the sentence 
flow together; as, u Perhaps we shall never see him again." " We shall 
perhaps never see him again." " We shall never, perhaps, sec him again." 
When two phrases of moderate length are united by both — and, either — 
or, or neither — «or, they seldom need the comma between them. A comma 
should be inserted before and, or, or nor, that is used only before the last 
term of a series ; as, " A, B, and Co." "John, James and William are 
studying," implies that I am telling John what the other two boys are doing. 
Insert a comma before and and the sense is clear. When a conjunction is 
repeated throughout a scries of terms, it is generally better to insert the 
comma; as, " The health, and strength, and freshness, and sweet sleep of 
infancy, are yours." — R. G. Parker. But when no greater point than the 
comma can be used at the end of the scries, the comma within may be 
omitted ; as, " Dividing and gliding and sliding, and falling and brawling 
and sprawling," etc. — Sou they. Indeed, the comma is sometimes ex- 
cluded within, because no greater point can be admitted at the end. But? 
sometimes the comma must be used within a part that is itself set off only 
by the comma ; as, " And therefore will I take the NeviPs part, and, 
when I spy advantage, claim the crown." — Shakespeare. But when the 
nominative is repeated, the semicolon should be used. Between the num- 
ber and the name of a street, the comma is generally heeded ; as, " No. 75, 
Spruce Street." The comma is, however, frequently omitted. (See Kerl's 
Comprehensive Grammar, p 371.) Any element of a simple sentence can 



OBSERVATIONS. 349 

sometimes run into so long and loose a series of particulars that the semi- 
colon is allowable between them. 

Complex Sentences. — When the dependent clause of a complex 
sentence is used as a subject-nominative or a predicate-nominative, it is set 
off by the comma. When it is used as a noun in any other relation, a 
comma is seldom needed. (Sec pp. 246, 247.) When that begins a clause 
which depends closely on it, preceding it, or on a governing or controlling 
verb, or on so or such, the clause does not require the comma; as, "It is 
reported that he is coming" " I know that he is honest" " It was so heavy 
that I could not earn/ it" When such or so begins the previous clause, a 
comma must be inserted between the clauses. When an objective clause 
is a quotation, it must generally be set off by a comma; as, " Seneca says, 
1 Life is a voyage/ " When a relative clause is restrictive, it is not set off 
by the comma ; but when it is simply explanatory, it is set off. " The 
great principles of government which arc easily understood, are known 
everywhere," implies that only some of the great principles of government 
are easilv understood. " The great principles of government, which are 
easily understood, are known everywhere," implies that all great principles 
of government are easily understood. A clause that begins with as, be- 
cause, how, if, than, that, when, where, whether, while, why, or a similar word, 
and depends closely on a preceding clause, seldom needs a point before it. 
But when such a clause stands before the principal clause, it must be set 
ofT by the comma; as, "I will go when he comes " ; " When he comes, I 
will go." Sometimes even a semicolon or a colon can be used between 
the principal and the subordinate element of a complex sentence. When 
the dependent element of a complex sentence is extended into a series, 
sometimes the comma is used, and sometimes the semicolon. The latter 
point implies greater deliberation. ^ 

Compound Sentences. — The clauses or members of compound 
sentences are sometimes separated by the comma, and sometimes by the 
semicolon. (Sec pp. 338, 340.) In stead of the semicolon, the period can 
also be used, when there is a design to give still greater importance to the 
particulars. When the verb of one of the clauses is omitted, a comma 
must generally be put in its place; as, "Industry produces wealth; and 
wealth, corruption/' 

When the name of a person, and a complimentary address, are both used at 
the beainnins of a letter, a period is placed after the name, and a comma or a 
colon after the address; the comma in the familiar style, and the colon in the 
solemn or formal style. When the letter begins in the line below, a dash may 
be added to the point above. 



350 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



QUESTIONS FOE REVIEW. 



6. 



8. 



1. Into what four great classes can all 

the errors in the u^e oi* language 
be divided ? 

2. What is the first General Rule 

3. What is said, in the special rules, 

about superfluous pronouns' — 
two negatives I — double com- 
parison ? — too many articles ? 
superfluous prepositions ? — pov- 
erty of language ? 
4 What is the second General Rule 7 
5. What is said, in the special rules, 
about the insertion ol articles? — 
improper comparison ? — parts 
emphatically distinguished I — 
serial parts 7 — nominatives im- 
properly omitted? — participial 
nouns 7 

What is the third General Rule ? 

Repeat the Rules of Syntax ', — the 
Notes. 

What is said, in the special rules, 
of llit.m used for those ? — of ad- 
Terbs and adjectives 7 — of two 
objects cumpared? — of the lead- 
ing term, in comparison? — of 
compared adjective^ and plural 
nouns, improperly expressed? — 
of words tnat should not be com- 
pared, or made plural? — of a 
and an ? — of a or an and the ? — 
of the subject of passive verbs ? — 
of the possessive apostrophe? — 
of a compound word or a complex 
term expressed in the possessive 
case ? — of a pair or series of nouns 
expressed in the possessive ca<e? 

— of harsh or inelegant pos- 
sessives? — of ambiguous pro- 
nouns? — of relative pronouns 7 

— of mixing different pronouns, 
or different forms of the verb ? — 
of shall and will? — of past tense 
and perfect participle? — of im- 
proper passive forms ? — of the 
indicative and t e subjuncti e 
mood? — of the tenses ? — of the 
infinitives? — of clumsy partici- 
pial forms ? 

What is the fourth General Rule? 

What is said, in the special rules, 
of the ponition of nouns and pro- 
nouns ? — of the position of ad- 
jectives, adverbs, and adjuncts ? 

— of adverbs that modiry infini- 
tives ? — of a part of a sentence 
that relates to each of two or 
more oiher parts ? 

What is a iigure? .... 637 

12. Into what classes are figures di- 

vided ? 608 

13. Mention the figures of orthography, bo^ 



11 



14. 



42. 



What i-: aphaeresis ? — syncope ? — 
apocope ? — prosthesis ? — para- 
goge ' — tmesis ? 

Mention the figures of syntax. 

What is ehipsis ? — aposiopesis ? — 
zeugma — pleonasm ? — enal- 
lage ? — inversion, or hyperbaton? 

What is an aretiaisin ? 

What is mimicry 7 . 

Mention the figures of rhetoric. 

What is a simile? — a metaphor 7 

— an allegory? — a metonymy? 

— a synecdoche? — personifica- 
tion 7 — antithesis? — irony t — 
paralipsis? — hyperbole? — cli- 
max ? — allusion ? — euphemism ? 
interrogation ? — exclamation ? — 
apostrophe ? — vision 1 — onoma- 
topoeia ? 

What is parody? What is a pun? 

What is Versification ? . 

What is verse i . 

To what four heads is versification 

reduced? 

What is poetic accent? 
What is a poetic foot i 
Mention and define the principal 

feet 

Mention and define the secondary 

feet 

What is said of poetic lines ? 

What is an hypermeter y 

What pauses are peculiar to verse ? 

Define them. . . . 708, 

What is rhyme ? . . 

Describe rhymes. . . 711, 

What is blank verse ? — heroic 

verse ? — a couplet ? — a stanza. ? 

— scanning 7 

What, is a poetic license? 

Mention the eight principal kinds. 

What does utterance comprise.? 

What is said of articulation 7 •>— 
the degree of loudness or rapid- 
ity ? — inflections? — toneal — 
empha-is ? — pauses ? 

What is Punctuation ? . 

How many of I he points and marka 
can you mention ? 

What is said of the period ? — the* 
colon ? — the semicolon ? — the 
interrogation-point ? — the excla* 
matiou- point? — the dash? — the 
curves ? — the brackets f — the 
hyphen 7 — the unde^core? — 
Italics ? 

What is said of the comma in re- 
gard to series of terms ? — paren- 
thetic terms? — loose modifiers? 

— independent words ? — sunject 
and predicate ? — clauses 1 — 
simple sentences? 



670 



671 
672 
673 



692 
693 

694 

6y5 
693 

697 



705 
703 
707 
709 
710 
712 



718 



71Q 



HOW I WOULD TEACH GRAMMAR ON THE BLACKBOARD, 
TO A CLASS OP BEGINNERS. 

[It is probably best to introduce the study of Grammar to a class 
of beginners, by a series of blackboard exercises ; or an exposition of 
this kind, as natural as possible, should at least accompany other 
exercises.] 

We naturally first notice objects; they make impressions onus; 
and then we say something of them. The words denoting objects 
are such as man, tree, house, sun, river, took, brook, mill, meadow, 
horse. Let the teacher write one of the simplest and most suggestive 
nouus on the blackboard. 

Man. 

Man works. 

Man makes machines. 

At first, the sentences should be omitted, and simply the word man 
should be presented ; or things should be so brought upon the black- 
board, and rubbed away, as to appear successively. * One thing at a 
time," and ft From one learn all," are good maxims in teaching. 

The teacher may now begin with the word man, by showing the 
difference between the spoken and the written word, and between the 
word as a sign and the object itself. He may show that the word must 
be a Noiui; and that such words as the, a, wise, slowly, and, and are 
not like it, and therefore can not be nouns. We learn best by com- 
paring and contrasting. Tne teacher may define a word, and then a 
noun ; and whenever he gives a definition, the class may in concert 
repeat it several times after him. If convenient, they may also first 
write it on their slates, as soon as he gives it, and then repeat it 
several times. Define a letter in the same way ; then a syllable, and 
then annex fill or ly to man, so as to show that there are derivative 
words. Also combine the word man with some other word, as work, 
fire, slaughter, to show that there are compound words. Let every 
newly discovered thing be named and defined as soon as obtained; 
and dwell upon these tilings until they are fixed in the mind. Indeed, 
the entire exercise should be like a regular and well-planned excur- 
sion for discoveries in language ; and as soon as a new thing appears, 
let it be named, defined, and. illustrated by additional examples. It 
is still better, where it can be done, always first to suppose a state of 
things that shall make necessary the element to be introduced. 

The teacher may now pass down through the various classes and 
properties of nouns, by bringing up collaterally, for comparison, such 
other nouns as will show the various accidents. For instance, he may 
mention the words Brown, Jones, Smith, Alison, or the names of some 
well-known citizens ; and thus show that there must be proper and 
common nouns. Let each kind be defined, and further illustrated, as 
suggested above. He may now write under the word man the word 
army, and then show that this word can be applied only to a collection 
of men just as man may be applied to an individual. • Thus the 
collective noun is obtained. Again, he may add the word manliness 
or manhood, and show how this differs from man ; thus obtaining the 
abstract noun. Now write below the word man the word woman, and 
under this the word person, and under this the word book. From these 
four words teach the genders. Next, the teacher may show thai 



352 APPENDIX. 

there can be a speaker, some one spoken to, or some person or thing 
spoken of ; and putting i" for man, then you for man, he may thus find 
the persons. The teacher may now put the word men under man, and 
thus lead his pupils to the idea of number, thence to the numbers. Of 
course, additional illustrations should be given to establish the idea 
better. Lastly, the teacher should write beside the word man the 
word mean's, and beside men the word men's ; thus leading the pupils 
to case, or to the fact that words tell something only when used with 
other words, or in groups. There is also a good opportunity hero to 
teach what is meant by a Mule of syntax ; and if the pupils 
are not too young, the relations among words may be taught 
by introducing the Rules of syntax gradually, or with each 
new element that requires a new Rule. The teacher may again 
take up the subject, and say that the word man, by itself, tells 
nothing; and that another word, at least, must be joined to it ii 
something is to be said. He may suggest the word works, thinks, 
mourns, suffers, rules, or any other. The curiosity of the pupils should 
now be excited by announcing the important fact that a SEN- 
TENCE has been obtained. This should be denned, and other 
short sentences should be given to fix the impression. The pupils 
may also be required to make sentences. The teacher may next show 
that he can be substituted for man, and also for a variety of mascu- 
line nouns, as George, John, Henry, horse, drake ; and that she can 
be substituted for feminine nouns, as Mary, Susan, icoman, girl, cow, 
duck ; thus leading his pupils to the Pronouns. The kinds of pro- 
nouns may now be briefly but clearly explained ; and the teaches 
should then show that pronouns are and must be similar to nouns, — ■ 
a fact that is embodied in a Rule. Having thus reached the end, the 
teacher may try to excite the wonder of the pupils as to hew much 
can be learned from a single word ; and he may also cheer them with 
the fact that when they have learned one word they know the nature 
of many others, and are rapidly getting rich in knowledge. 

The teacher may now take up the Verb, and show how it differs 
from the noun. A word that tells something about an object, must 
be different from the word which denotes the object. It may be also 
well to show, by analogy, that, as there are different kinds of lowers, 
trees, animals, etc., so it is reasonable to suppose that there ar-s differ- 
ent kinds of words ; and as almost every object has several qualities 
— such as color, size, shape, etc., so it is reasonable to suppose that 
almost every word has several properties. After a suitable introduc- 
tion, go on with the verb, and let the pupils be conducted through it 
as they were conducted through the noun. Since the moods are sim- 
ply the different ways in which the act or state can be referred to its 
subject, they should be carefully presented, and then branched out 
into the tenses, and these into the styles or forms, and these jnto the 
various persons and numbers. In unfolding the verb, it is particularly 
easy and expedient to show always in advance that the nature oi 
things requires the peculiar form or forms that are to be presented. 
In connection with moods, tke teacher should also show the difference 
between a predicats-verb and a mere participle or infinitice,- -between 
a predication and what is not a predication, between an assertion and 
a mere assumption, or between a sentence and a phrase. *' The man 
good," tells nothing ; but " The man is good " is a clear statement. 
" A lady singing," " A singing lady," are mere phrases ; " The lady 



APPENDIX. 353 

is singing," " The lady sings," are assertions or sentences. Since the 
verb is closely dependent on its subject, and varies according to the 
person and number of the subject, it will be easy to teach here what 
are called government and agreement in syntax. The attention of the 
pupils may also be now directed to Parsing, as being simply an 
orderly enumeration of the instructive things that can be learned 
about words. Lastly, it may be shown that all the elements thus 
taught are really useful, or conducive to a great end, — namely, to teach 
us how to speak and write correctly ; because for this purpose it is 
necessary that we should be familiar with the different forms of words, 
in order that we may always be able to choose the right. 

Now the teacher may commence with the Modifiers, or Ad~ 
junctSf to the principal parts. 

Trees grow. 

The tree grows. 

Young trees grow rapidly. 

Our trees do not grow. 

Our two young trees are now growing. 

Our two young trees are now growing very rapidly. 

Trees bear fruit. 

Young trees bear the best fruit. 

Several old trees yet bear very excellent fruit. 

Jones is a blacksmith. 

Jones the blacksmith is strong. 

Jones the blacksmith is a very strong man. 

Having obtained the two principal elements, add to them succes- 
sively the different kinds of Articles, Adjectives, and Adverbs, 
— single words ; and thus enlarge the sentence in all the various 
ways in which it can be enlarged. Show the difference between 
principal and subordinate parts, by writing on the board a sentence 
of this kind : " The paths of glory lead but to the grave." Rub 
away all but " paths" and " lead," and these two words still make 
sense ; therefore they are principal parts : but rub away " paths " 
and " lead," and the remaining words no longer make sense, or they 
make sense only when attached to the other two words, and are there- 
fore subordinate. Show the necessity for modifiers or adjuncts ; for 
without them the thought would be imperfectly expressed, or the 
meaning would be left too wide, loose, or indefinite. The more 
modifiers we use, the more we narrow the scope of the sentence ; but 
in the same proportion the sentence becomes sharper and more dis- 
tinct. Explain the peculiar nature of articles, adjectives, and adverbs, 
just as you unfolded the nature of nouns and verbs. After having 
presented adverbs of manner, time, place, and degree, you may ask, 
with reference to a sentence of this kind — " Our trees do not grow," 
whether not denies the trees or the growing. To what, then, does 
not relate ? and what must it be, though it does not express manner, 
place, time, or degree ? Mules of syntax may also be thus taught as 
occasions arise for them. 

Having disposed of modifying words, introduce Modifying 
Phrases, but only the most common and important, — the preposi- 
tional phrase, the participial phrase, and the infinitive phrase. 



354 APPENDIX. 

The trees in the meadow are growing rapidly. 

The tree fell into the field. 

The trees planted last year are dead. 

The trees to be planted now, have not vet arrived. 

Trees were planted to shade the house. 

Begin by showing that kl The trees in, 11 u The trees in the," would not make 
satisiactoiy serine ; and that something more is needed, or that we must say, tk The 
trees in the meadow" to get a complete iaea. Such expressions as in the meadow, 
on the hill, by the brook, behind the home, beyond the liver, aie called prepotitional 
phrases ; and the words in, on, by, behind, and beyond are called Prepositions. 
Define, explain, and illustrate fully the most common words of this kind. Next 
dispose of participial phrases and infinitive phrases in like manner ; and show 
also how they are used in the sense of nouns. 

Now introduce the principal Modifying C I at4ses,— those which begin with 
relative pronouns, conjunctive adverbs, and subordinate conjunctions. 

The trees which hare many leaves bear but little fruit. 

Trees grow best where they are sheltered from icinds. 

The tree grows rapidly because the soil is rich. 

I see that you have cut down the old elm. 

How an acorn becomes an oak, is a mystery. 

Draw attention to the fact that the added element is itself a statement ; and say 
that such an element is called a clause. Give definitions, explanations, and illus- 
trations. Show the nature of dependent clauses ; or that th y are, like the phrases 
above, but adjectives, adverbs, or nouns. Speak of the connecting word ; and 
show that the rest of the clause is nothing but a simple statement. II r - now con- 
venient to show the distinction between simple sentences and compa " T " Vo 
teacher may also add here that the adjective, the adverbial, and the substantive 



. ..sly ; " "A man who gives t, . . 
always follow it himself.' 1 " The candidate spoke here ; " " lire candidate spoke 
in this place ; " " The candidate spoke where the people had assembled." 

Now introduce Conjunctions and Compound elements. Let the different 
elements of the sentence be successively compounded, and lastly show that state- 
ments themselves may be compounded. 

Trees and bushes grow along the river. 

Many trees and shrubs bear fruit and hares. 

Young and thrifty trees adorn the Park. 

The trees wave and rustle in the breeze. 

Constant and rapidly rose the water above and below us. 

The limbs of the tree extend over the house and into the garden. 

Large trees stand on yonder hill, and many crows are cawing there. 

Finally, select a few of the most impressive sentences or expressions containing 
Interjections, and by means of these examples teach the emotional and unsyn- 
tactical nature of this class of words. 

As each element is introduced throughout the foregoing blackboard exercises, it 
will be well to require the pupils to furnish additional specimens from their own 
stock of language To give them something to do relating to the subject under con- 
federation, is at least one of the best ways to fix their attention. 

S^T* To the foregoing outline of exercises, the inventive teacher can easily add 
many other useful exercises. The kinds of certain classes ol objects may be men- 
tioned ; the parts of certain objects ; the contents. The same adjective or verb 
may be suitably joined to many different nouns ; or the same noun to many differ- 
ent adjectives or verbs. Adjectives and adverbs may be contrasted, also r.ouns 
and pronouns. All things liable to be confounded maybe contrasted in columns. 
(So far as convenient, the exercises should be arranged in columns ; especially 
when the items are related.) Highly instructive and interesting sentences may be 
written on the blnckboard. and carefully analyzed and parsed, to serve as general 
and durable models. Pithy extracts may be written on the blackboard : and pupils 
may be required to write in columns the parts of speech in them, and then make 
new sentences from these words. The teacher may also give a pithy word or 
phrase, and let it go rapidly round the class, each pupil making a different sen- 
tence in which it is properly used. 



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